TTT^ 


■^-" 


Nf  / 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 


Form  L    I 


1594 
C67 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below 


JUL  :,  0  1324iiAR  3  1  WT.^. 
-  1     JUL  2  3^949 


JUL  8      *•*• 


fr      -    "    ^? 


NOV  18  IS^i 

NOV   2  1 1928      ! 
NOV  1  ~       ^ 


:-? 


UAN  14  1935  ; 


?i ; 


^e^ 


Form  L-9-5;/(-5.'24 


EDITED  BY  HENRY  SUZZALLO 

PROFESSOR    OF   THE    PHILOSOPHY    OF   EDUCATION 
TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 

INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

IN  THE  ELEMENTARY 

SCHOOL 


BY 

PERCIVAL  R.  COLE,  Ph.D. 

VICE-PRINCIPAL,    SYDNEY   TEACHERS'    COLLEGE  ;   LECTURER   IN 

EDUCATION,  SYDNEY  UNIVERSITY  ;  SOMETIME  INSTRUCTOR 

IN    EDUCATION,   TEACHERS   COLLEGE,   COLUMBIA 

UNIVERSITY,   NEW  YORK 

2.  ^f  7  ^ 


HOUGHTON  MIFFLIN   COMPANY 

BOSTON  NEW   YORK   AND   CHICAGO 

^tie  mi'otx^ibt  ptcjij*  Cambridge 


COrVRIGIIT,    I9I4,    BY    HOUGHTON    MIFFLIN    COMfANY 
ALL    KIGHTS    KKSERVED 


CAMBRIDGE  .  MASSACHUSBTTS 
U    .   S   .    A 


^ 


■  C  67 


AUTHOR'S  NOTE 

The  writer  is  indebted  to  Dr.  James  E.  Rus- 
sell, Dean  of  Teachers  College,  for  the  sugges- 
tion of  some  of  the  constructive  ideas  outlined 
in  these  pages.  His  thanks  are  extended  also  to 
his  father,  Mr.  John  Cole,  to  Professor  Alexan- 
der Mackie,  of  Sydney  University,  and  to  Pro- 
fessor Henry  Suzzallo,  the  editor  of  this  series, 
for  their  kindness  in  reading  the  whole  of  the 
manuscript. 

P.  R.  C. 

Sydney,  Australia, 
May,  1 914. 


CONTENTS 

Editor's  Introduction vii 

I.  The  Ancient  View  or  Industry  and 

Industrial  Education i 

II.  The  Modern  View 14 

f  III.   The  Present  Problem  of  Industrial 

Education 25 

I  IV.  The    Necessary    Reconstruction  of 

THE  School  Curriculum    ....    39 
V.  The   Necessary    Reconstruction   of 

School  Method 51 

Outline 62 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

The  history  of  the  teaching  of  manual  training  is 
one  of  the  most  interesting  chapters  in  the  evolu- 
tion of  the  elementary  school.  Manual  work  was 
introduced  into  the  curriculum  at  the  beginning 
of  the  present  period  of  educational  unrest;  and, 
because  it  had  no  fixed  traditions  to  hamper  its 
progress,  responded  most  fully  to  modern  educa- 
tional principles. 

When  manual  training  was  inaugurated  in  our 
schools,  the  public  supposed  it  was  to  serve  a 
practical  industrial  purpose;  but  the  laity  had  not 
reckoned  with  the  schoolmaster  and  school  tra- 
dition. The  teacher  proceeded  to  make  manual 
work  a  mental  discipline  rather  than  a  practical 
utility,  —  a  fallacious  distinction  long  held  by 
his  craft.  The  new  study  was  made  into  a  set  of 
formal  exercises,  rather  than  a  group  of  interest- 
ing problems.  The  chief  emphasis  was  laid  on  the 
practice  of  technique.  The  need  of  the  child  to 
express  himself  in  manual  activities  that  fulfill 
his  desires  was  completely  subordinated  if  not 
overlooked.  What  was  worse,  —  the  techniques 
vii 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

were  studied  in  isolation,  that  is,  apart  from  the 
personal  or  social  situations  which  call  for  their 
use. 

Thus,  in  the  carKcst  days  of  this  movement, 
the  pupil  was  taught  to  make  a  half-dozen  differ- 
ent kinds  of  saw  cuts.  The  purpose  was  not  to 
construct  anything  with  the  pieces  thus  sawed; 
but  merely  to  get  technical  efTiciency.  The  exer- 
cises were  not  graded  so  as  to  give  the  child  power 
to  build  some  simple,  useful  object,  in  which  the 
skills  learned  might  be  employed.  They  were  or- 
dered so  as  to  constitute  a  series  of  complicated 
technical  skills,  the  uses  of  which  even  the 
teacher  did  not  always  foresee.  The  training 
given  had  little  relation  to  the  child's  need  to 
understand,  solve,  and  express  his  own  experi- 
ences and  needs  through  the  use  of  the  hands. 

Any  one  who  had  heard  children  rendering 
scales  and  other  vodal  exercises  in  the  music 
period,  or  seen  children  studying  diacritics  and 
phonetics  in  the  reading  class,  or  watched  them 
dissecting  sentences  into  clauses,  phrases,  and 
parts  of  speech  in  language  instruction,  can 
readily  understand  what  had  happened  to  the 
new  study  of  manual  training.  It  had  fallen  a 
victim  to  pedagogical  formalism.  The  subject 
had  been  wrenched  out  of  all  relation  to  the 
viii 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

child's  imperious  constructive  instincts;  just  as 
school  music  had  been  divorced  from  the  child's 
spontaneous  desire  to  sing,  and  as  school  reading 
and  composition  had  been  isolated  from  the 
eager  wish  of  the  child  to  acquire  new  and  appeal- 
ing experiences  through  print  and  to  express  them 
by  the  written  word. 

For  a  time  it  seemed  as  though  the  introduction 
of  manual  training  had  contributed  nothing  to 
the  school  save  an  additional  expense.  It  was  as 
subservient  to  traditional  pedagogical  standards 
as  any  of  the  older  subjects.  But  its  rescue  was 
easier,  because  its  failure  was  more  dramatic. 

Teachers  could  not  fail  to  observe  the  instinc- 
tive eagerness  with  which  children  always  make 
their  first  entry  into  the  manual  training  shop; 
no  more  could  they  fail  to  note  that  inevitable 
flagging  of  interest  which  characterized  successive 
days  of  work  at  the  formal  exercises  of  the  work- 
bench. Somehow  discipline  was  harder  to  main- 
tain in  the  shop  than  in  the  other  classrooms ;  yet 
these  same  children  would  cooperate  in  building 
kites  and  sleds  in  the  back  yard  at  home  with  an 
absorption  so  complete  that  the  interference  of 
parent  or  neighbor  was  seldom  needed.  Some- 
thing was  radically  wrong  with  manual  work  at 
school.  The  teacher  noted  the  fact. 
ix 


EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

Then  ensued  a  struggle  to  keep  manual  work 
motivated.  The  children  ceased  to  saw  a  bit  of 
wood  at  six  different  angles  just  to  show  that  they 
could  do  it.  They  began  to  make  projects  for 
which  they  had  a  real  use,  —  a  coat-hanger,  a 
shelf,  a  box,  a  stool,  or  a  table.  At  first  the  in- 
structor selected  the  task  and  set  the  model;  later 
each  child  chose  a  project  for  himself  and  made 
his  own  drawings.  Meanwhile  all  the  technical 
requirements  were  acquired  incidentally,  and 
acquired  more  effectively  than  before,  because 
the  relation  of  skill  to  ends  was  now  apparent 
to  the  child  himself.  Interest  in  the  shop  was 
reawakened,  and  increased  efficiency  followed. 

Under  this  reformed  regimen  it  was  natural 
that  the  child  should  master  such  facts  as  he 
needed  with  unusual  readiness.  In  this  respect, 
the  manual  training  period  offered  a  marked 
contrast  to  other  school  exercises.  In  conse- 
quence, the  great  value  of  action  or  expression 
as  a  mode  of  educative  experience  was  soon 
established. 

This  recognition  by  the  schoolmaster  of  the 
worth  of  ''learning  by  doing"  expressed  itself 
in  a  number  of  ways.  It  was  easy  to  see  that  this 
primitive  and  therefore  natural  mode  of  learning 
would  be  most  valuable  with  the  youngest  chil- 

X 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

dren.  Thereupon,  manual  training  was  extended 
to  the  lower  grades.  The  simple  projects  and 
skills  of  primitive  peoples  were  utilized  in  the 
primary  classes,  —  weaving,  basketry,  knife- 
work,  and  the  like.  This  new  sympathy  of  the 
elementary  school  with  activity  and  occupations 
gave  it  common  ground  with  the  kindergarten, 
and  additional  types  of  constructive  acti\'ity 
were  borrowed,  —  building  with  blocks,  paper 
folding  and  cutting,  clay  modehng.  A  differentia- 
tion of  sex-needs  added  sewing  and  cooking.  The 
range  of  manual  work  was  greatly  broadened 
with  each  of  these  successive  extensions.  Indeed, 
the  field  of  manual  work  was  now  so  much  en- 
riched that  it  became  inchoate.  The  whole  move- 
ment needed  reinterpretation  and  reorganiza- 
tion. 

The  teacher's  rediscovery  of  the  principle 
of  "learning  by  doing"  profoundly  influenced 
the  whole  curriculum.  It  changed  elementary 
science  into  nature  -  study,  where  children 
actively  participated  in  the  control  of  nature 
instead  of  passively  perceiving  experiments  dem- 
onstrated to  them.  It  made  the  active  social 
relations  of  children  on  the  playground  and  in 
school  thoroughly  respectable  resources  for  moral 
training.  Organized  play  and  self-government 
xi 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

became  methods  of  learning  through  self-expres- 
sion. The  principle  of  self-activity,  which  had 
been  walled  up  among  kindergartners,  began  to 
be  quoted  and  applied  by  primary  teachers. 
Dramatization  and  games  became  more  impor- 
tant as  modes  of  instruction  in  teaching  beginners 
to  read,  and  actually  appeared  within  the  stern 
precincts  of  the  arithmetic  period.  Even  lan- 
guage teaching  relaxed  enough  to  permit  chil- 
dren to  learn  to  speak  and  write  through  express- 
ing their  own  thoughts  and  feelings.  Grammar, 
too,  came  to  be  mastered  through  use.  And  song, 
\long  silenced  by  the  demand  to  sing  scales, 
\emerged  in  rote  singing.  Learning  through  self- 
lexpression  or  action,  a  method  first  exempUfied 
in  a  large,  concrete  way  by  manual  training,  came 
to  be  utilized  in  many  school  subjects,  thus 
greatly  reinforcing  its  worth  as  a  mode  of  teach- 
ing and  learning. 

This  projection  of  manual  training  into  the 
center  of  educational  debate  greatly  modified 
the  point  of  view  and  the  resources  of  those 
specially  charged  with  its  teaching.  They  re- 
turned from  discussion  to  teaching  with  a  dispo- 
sition to  reorganize  their  owti  work.  They  were 
now  keenly  alive  to  the  enlarged  purposes  of 
manual  training.  They  had  lost  much  of  the 
xii 


EDITOR'S  INTRODUCTION 

cultural  narrowness  which  often  makes  the  aca- 
demic mind  a  matter  of  reproach.  They  saw  in 
their  instruction  a  large  and  important  oppor- 
tunity for  gi\'ing  the  child  an  understanding 
of  the  economic  organization  which  rests  upon 
industry.  Because  elementary  school  children 
are  young,  they  proceeded  to  develop  an  appre- 
ciation of  industrial  workmanship  through  the 
actual  manipulation  of  materials  in  simple  con- 
structions, leaving  information  and  interpreta- 
tion of  the  more  intellectual  sort  to  be  provided 
in  a  supplementary  way  as  opportunity  offers. 
Thus  the  great  need  to  give  all  men  some  com- 
prehension of  the  industrial  processes  and  eco- 
nomic problems  of  American  life  begins  to  be 
amply  met  in  the  elementary  school. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  how  old  oppositions 
are  here  reconciled.  Active  work  with  representa- 
tive materials,  —  woods,  metals,  clays,  fabrics, 
and  foodstuffs,  —  supplemented  by  wider  obser- 
vations and  readings,  is  adequate  to  develop  that 
general  industrial  intelligence  which  every  man 
ought  to  have.  It  is  also  broad  enough  to  provide 
an  adequate  sampling  for  the  child,  destined  by 
interest  or  necessity  to  make  an  early  choice 
among  trade  schools  and  apprenticeships.  This 
modern  program  provides  an  exceptionally 
xiii 


EDITOR'S   INTRODUCTION 

appealing  course  for  all  elementary  school  chil- 
dren regardless  of  their  future  schooling  or  life. 
The  importance  of  the  social  service  it  is  devised 
to  render  makes  an  understanding  of  its  essential 
principles  desirable. 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION  IN 
THE  ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW  OF  INDUSTRY  AND 
INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

I.  Culture,  education,  and  industry 

The  term  "culture"  implies  the  pursuit  of 
objects  regarded  as  good  in  themselves.  The 
study  of  music  is  a  branch  of  culture,  because 
this  study  is  thought  to  be  an  end  in  itself,  not  a 
means  to  something  else.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  art  and  philosophy.  Education  is  a  broader 
term  which  includes  every  branch  of  mental 
development,  so  far  as  it  is  subjected  to  dehber- 
ate  guidance.  Education  includes  culture;  but 
also  includes  a  utilitarian  element.  On  the  sur- 
face, utilitarian  education  seems  the  direct  oppo- 
site of  culture.  Such  education  is  sought  not  for 
its  own  sake,  like  culture,  but  for  the  sake  of 
something  else.  In  the  present  discussion  we  are 
not  concerned  with  the  whole  range  of  utilitarian 
I 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

education,  but  with  industrial  education  only. 
To  define  the  latter  we  must  first  define  industry. 
Industry  is  the  process  by  which  natural  products 
are  made  available  for  human  uses.  Industrial 
education,  then,  is  the  preparation  of  the  mind 
for  appreciating,  understanding,  and  performing 
the  transformation  of  natural  objects  into  forms 
which  are,  according  to  human  ideas,  suitable  for 
consumption  or  use. 

2.  Ancient  prejudices  survive  in  modern  culture 
and  education 

The  thinkers  of  the  ancient  world  drew  a  rigid 
line  between  cultural  and  utilitarian  education. 
They  did  not  perceive  that  culture  and  utility 
might  overlap.  They  could  not  see  that  although 
utilitarian  education  has  an  aim  outside  itself, 
it  may  also  be  worth  while  in  itself.  Their  re- 
stricted view  still  persists  both  in  the  United 
States  and  in  Europe,  and  constitutes  more  than 
half  the  prejudice  against  a  recognition  of  the 
due  place  of  industry  in  education.  The  Greek 
philosophers  are  chiefly  responsible  for  this  tra- 
ditional contempt  for  industry.  They  convinced 
the  Romans,  persuaded  the  schoolmen,  and  dom- 
inated the  Renaissance.  Thus,  in  order  that  the 
traditional  attitude  of  the  schools  toward  indus- 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

trial  education  may  be  understood,  it  is  desirable 
that  an  investigation  should  be  made  into  the 
various  causes  which  contributed  to  prejudice 
the  Greek  mind  against  industry. 

3.  The  Greek  prejudice  against  industry 

{a)  Aristocratic  occupations  glorified  in  culture. 
The  principal  business  of  a  Greek  aristocrat  was 
war.  We  have  the  evidence  of  Herodotus  that  the 
honor  of  war  among  the  Greeks  contributed  to 
the  dishonor  of  trade  and  industry.  "I  have 
remarked,"  he  writes,  " that  the  Thracians,  the 
Scythians,  the  Persians,  the  Lydians,  and  almost 
all  the  other  barbarians  hold  the  citizens  who 
practice  trades  and  their  children  in  less  repute 
than  the  rest,  while  they  esteem  as  noble  those 
who  keep  aloof  from  the  handicrafts,  and  espe- 
cially honor  such  as  are  given  to  war.  These 
ideas  prevail  throughout  the  whole  of  Greece, 
particularly  among  the  Lacedaemonians.  Corinth 
is  the  place  where  the  mechanics  are  least  de- 
spised." 

Doubtless  Herodotus  was  right.  Amid  the  ar- 
rogant conditions  of  militarism  the  soldier  soon 
comes  to  despise  the  humbler  if  more  useful  pur- 
suits of  industry.  The  artisan  who  turns  to  a 
soldier's  life,  having  once  tasted  the  sweets  of 

3 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

idleness,  the  pleasure  of  browbeating;  others,  and 
perhaps  the  profit  of  the  sack  of  cities,  learns  to 
look  down  upon  the  life  of  the  workshop.  As  a 
soldier  he  stands  in  the  relation  of  employer  to 
employee,  of  patron  to  client,  toward  the  armorer 
and  other  artisans;  and  he  scorns  to  reverse  this 
congenial  status  by  resuming  his'  former  lowly 
occupation.  In  the  hour  of  \dctor>'  he  may  have 
ransacked  richer  stores  than  as  an  artisan  he  ever 
contributed  to  maintain.  From  the  fears  of  trades- 
men he  may  have  extorted  money  or  goods  be- 
yond what  he  could  have  hoped  to  acquire  in  the 
course  of  months  of  honest  toil.  Thus  the  sword 
scorns  tools,  while  tools  resent  the  scorn  of  the 
sword. 

After  war,  the  chief  interests  of  an  Athenian 
gentleman  were  sport,  music,  politics,  and  litera- 
ture, to  which  was  added,  after  the  time  of  Plato, 
philosophy.  None  of  these  subjects  was  utili- 
tarian. Industry  was  not  among  the  interests 
of  the  Greek  aristocracy.  It  is  probable  that  the 
philosophic  conception  of  culture  was  deeply  if 
unconsciously  afifected  by  the  actual  pursuits  of 
the  upper  classes. 

(b)  Tlie  status  of  industry  as  affected  by  slavery. 
Again,  the  institution  of  slavery  could  not  but 
affect  the  status  of  industry  in  the  ancient  world. 
4 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

Slavery  has  always  made  industry  of  certain 
kinds  appear  degrading.  The  ancients,  however, 
justified  slavery  on  psychological  grounds.  Aris- 
totle maintained  that  some  are  slaves  by  nature. 
In  taking  this  view,  moreover,  he  was  not  enun- 
ciating an  independent  principle,  but  a  corollary 
of  Plato's  division  of  the  appetites  from  the 
reason.  According  to  Plato,  the  reason  should  rule 
over  the  appetites;  but  as  a  matter  of  fact  the 
mental  nature  of  some  is  dominated  by  appetite 
or  desire,  while  in  others  reason  rules.  Conse- 
quently the  latter  should  organize  and  direct  the 
lives  and  activities  of  the  former.  Those  in  whom 
the  reason  predominates  should  rule.  Those  who 
are  swayed  by  appetite  should  be  ruled,  should 
in  fact  be  slaves.  Further,  argues  Aristotle,  since 
in  the  world  of  nature  as  of  art  the  inferior  always 
exists  for  the  sake  of  the  superior,  the  slave  exists 
entirely  for  the  sake  of  his  master.  Yet,  since  no 
mind  is  wholly  constituted  of  desires,  Aristotle, 
perhaps,  should  only  have  concluded  that  som.e 
should  be  more  servile,  some  more  free.  He 
scarcely  had  the  right  to  argue  that  some  are 
entitled  to  no  freedom  at  all.  In  fact,  however, 
the  principle  that  some  men  are  totally  another's 
was  frankly  and  ferociously  adopted  in  Sparta, 
where  the  life  of  the  slave  was  one  of  indescrib- 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

able  danger  and  misery.  In  the  Roman  Empire, 
too,  slavery  became  an  expansive  festering  sore 
within  the  body  politic,  sapping  and  destroj-ing 
the  estate  of  both  yeoman  and  laborer,  involving 
the  land  in  servile  wars  and  falling  into  line  with 
other  forces  detrimental  to  the  spirit  of  individ- 
uality. In  Roman  law  the  only  legal  form  pro- 
vided for  questioning  the  slave  was  by  torture. 
Favors  might  fall  to  the  lot  of  the  slave;  rights 
he  had  none.  Under  these  circumstances  it  was 
\^  impossible  that  industrial  pursuits,  carried  on  as 
'  they  were  chiefly  by  slaves,  should  escape  the 
servile  stigma.  Social  status  always  affects  work 
as  well  as  worker.  The  contamination  of  indus- 
try was  sure  and  unavoidable. 

(c)  The  thinkers,  poets,  and  historians  aristo- 
cratic. Further,  industry  suffered  in  the  estima- 
tion of  the  Greeks  from  the  fact  that  it  was  not 
extolled  like  other  activities  by  the  poets  whose 
works  were  a  household  word  throughout  Hellas. 
Most  of  the  early  poets,  like  Homer,  wrote  or 
sang  for  the  royal  courts;  and  almost  necessarily 
expressed  aristocratic  sentiments  in  their  songs. 
They  had,  therefore,  no  meed  of  praise  for  the 
deeds  of  the  common  people.  Commoners  are 
never  mentioned  by  name  in  Homer.  While 
Hesiod  stands  on  a  lonely  height  in  sounding  the 
6 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

praises  of  the  simple  life  of  rural  labor,  he  never 
attempts  to  dignify  the  life  of  the  urban  artisan. 
Nor  were  the  historians  more  enlightened  in  this 
respect.  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  and  Thucydides 
were  men  of  high  social  degree  who  could  not 
entirely  escape  from  the  prejudices  natural  to 
their  station.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  phi- 
losophers. Drawn  from  the  more  leisured  class, 
they  naturally  shared  its  views  of  life.  The  two 
great  minds,  those  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  adopted 
a  psychological  theory  prejudicial  to  industry, 
the  outlines  of  which  have  been  indicated  in  the 
section  on  slavery.  In  his  book  on  education, 
in  the  Politics,  Aristotle  hurries  over  the  more 
utilitarian  subjects,  reading,  arithmetic,  drawing, 
and  even  gymnastics,  in  order  to  devote  his  chief 
attention  to  music,  which  alone  has  no  use  out- 
side itself.  Music  was  a  costly  and  aristocratic 
study,  the  principal  test  of  the  education  of  an 
Athenian  gentleman.  An  uneducated  person  was 
described  not  as  illiterate,  but  as  one  who  could 
not  play  the  lyre.  This  meant  that  education 
and  aristocracy  coincided. 

What  is  the  main  conclusion  to  be  drawn  from 
our  survey  of  the  ancient  view  of  industry?  In 
general,  it  is  that  the  Greeks,  from  whom  our 
own  opinions  are  to  a  considerable  extent  derived, 

7 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

based  their  conception  of  the  place  of  industry 
in  life  upon  a  dubious  psychological  and  ethical 
analysis,  reinforced  by  a  certain  bent  of  mind 
native  and  hereditary-  in  them.  This  would  not 
be  of  great  importance  were  it  not  that  the 
opinions  of  the  Greeks  have  never  been  rejected 
by  the  main  current  of  Western  thought.  For 
many  centuries  the  Hellenic  preference  for  cul- 
tural rather  than  industrial  eflort  has  been  taken 
as  final. 

4.  The  historic  descent  of  Greek  prejudice 

(a)  Rome.  The  Romans  under  the  Empire, 
cursed  with  the  institution  of  slavery,  and  es- 
sentially aristocratic  in  their  views,  fell  easy  vic- 
tims to  the  Greek  ideas,  which  entirely  separated 
industry  from  culture.  Under  the  Republic, 
indeed,  the  Romans  had  gloried  in  their  hus- 
bandry ;  but  this  was  before  the  time  of  advanced 
education  in  Rome.  The  typical  attitude  of  the 
Gra^co-Roman  period  is  expressed  by  Cicero, 
who  in  [his  treatise  on  "Duties"  distinctly  re- 
fuses a  place  to  industry  in  the  vocation  of  a 
Roman  gentleman.  The  Roman  proletariat  was 
indifferent;  he  lived  for  neither  culture  nor  in- 
dustry, but  only  for  bread  and  the  circus. 

(b)  The  Middle  Ages.  During  the  Middle  Ages, 

8 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

religion  was  the  chief  concern  of  the  intellectual 
life.  The  Christian  religion  has  so  much  to  say 
for  the  worker  that  it  might  have  led  to  his  edu- 
cation as  a  worker.  The  fact  that  it  did  not  was 
due  largely  to  the  emphasis  placed  upon  another, 
an  eternal,  life.  The  world  and  all  its  works  were 
regarded  as  temporary  and  comparatively  unim- 
portant. Even  the  Benedictine  monks,  who  gen- 
erally gave  part  of  their  time  to  manual  work, 
did  so  mainly  as  a  discipline.  They  had  little  or 
no  desire  to  exalt  industry.  Industrial  education 
stood  far  apart  from  culture,  the  one  a  matter  of 
apprenticeship,  the  other  a  matter  of  books.  The 
villein's  son  who  learned  to  read  escaped  from 
villeinage  into  the  Church.  The  industrial  life 
knew  him  no  more. 

(c)  Scholasticism.  Nor  was  the  scholastic  sys- 
tem which  preceded  the  Renaissance  more  favor- 
able to  the  progress  of  industrial  education.  It 
was  one  thing  or  the  other;  one  might  either  be 
a  Latinist,  logician,  and  theologian,  or  a  son  of 
industry.  One  could  not  be  both.  The  former 
was  considered  a  scholar,  the  latter  an  ignora- 
mus. 

(d)  The  Renaissance.  During  the  Renaissance, 
the  eyes  of  scholars  were  dazzled  by  the  glory  of 
tlie  ancient  Hteratures.  Humanism,  or  the  study 

9 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

of  the  classics,  was  the  dominant  note  in  educa- 
tion. Even  those  who  rebelled  against  a  system 
of  mere  imitation  of  Cicero  remained  enthralled 
to  books.  Bookishness  is  the  hereditary  foe  of  the 
industrial  life;  it  removes  men's  eyes  from  the 
world  about  them  and  concentrates  their  atten- 
tion upon  the  ideas  of  the  past.  The  educated 
man  henceforth  was  the  classicist,  who  had 
neither  time  nor  inclination  for  industrial  inter- 
ests. 

(e)  The  Reformation.  The  Reformation  might 
have  made  a  difference  in  favor  of  industrial  edu- 
cation had  not  the  reformers  been  obliged  to 
educate  leaders.  Their  main  need  was  of  clergy 
and  scholars  to  defend  their  theological  positions. 
Consequently,  although  Luther,  Calvin,  and 
others  were  not  blind  to  the  needs  of  the  masses, 
they  concentrated  their  efforts  upon  the  second- 
ary or  Latin  schools.  Thus  in  practice  the 
Reformation,  except  in  the  field  of  religious  in- 
struction, made  little  diflerence  to  the  course 
of  studies  which  had  been  determined  by  the 
Renaissance. 

(/)  England.  In  England,  moreover,  as  far  as 
the  schools  were  concerned,  the  Reformation  and 
the  Renaissance  coalesced.  Both  movements 
were  regulated  by  Henry  VIII  and  his  royal 

10 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

successors.  As  the  classical  education  provided 
by  the  Latin  schools  was  necessarily  limited  to 
the  leisured  class,  or  to  those  who  made  their  way 
by  scholarships  or  otherwise  into  that  class,  the 
ancient  contempt  for  industry  continued  to  be 
transmitted  from  one  generation  to  another.  In 
England,  until  the  recognition  of  higher  ele- 
mentary schools  by  the  Board  of  Education  in 
1900,  there  was  practically  no  attempt  to  com- 
bine industrial  with  general  education.  Up  to  the 
nineteenth  century,  in  fact,  primary  education 
was  dominated  by  the  idea  of  charity.  The 
pupils  were  educated  to  be  employees.  They 
were  expected  to  continue  in  their  station  of  life. 
Reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  and  the  catechism 
formed  their  course  of  study.  Culture  was  the 
exclusive  possession  of  the  upper  classes,  and 
had  nothing  to  do  with  utility.  Cultural  exclu- 
siveness,  indeed,  is  still  a  feature  of  the  so-called 
great  public  schools.  It  was  from  England  chiefly 
that  the  United  States  inherited  its  prejudice 
against  industrial  education  in  the  schools. 

(g)  The  United  States.  Part  of  the  inheritance 
of  the  United  States  from  the  Old  World  was  the 
sharp  distinction  between  culture  and  industry. 
Culture,  the  result  of  a  liberal  education,  was  the 
mark  of  a  gentleman.  What  had  a  gentleman  to 
II 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

do  with  industrial  efficiency?  It  is  true  that  from 
the  first  the  conception  of  culture  was  modified  by 
the  fact  that  a  gentleman  had  estates  from  which 
he  profited.  The  work  of  conducting  an  estate, 
however,  has  always  been  regarded  as  compatible 
with  aristocratic  tastes.  Aristocracy  is  at  all 
times  closely  associated  with  the  ownership  of 
land.  Besides,  a  landed  proprietor  did  not  actu- 
ally engage  in  manual  operations.  The  colonial 
grammar  schools,  in  which  gentlemen  were 
taught,  therefore  confined  themselves  to  cultural 
studies,  and  chiefly  to  the  classics.  A  broader 
view  characterized  the  academies  of  the  eight- 
eenth century,  but  they  had  nothing  to  do  with 
industry.  The  universities  long  resisted  the  intro- 
duction of  industrial  departments.  Many  of  the 
universities,  indeed,  still  give  ground  very  slowly 
before  the  advance  of  industry.  With  some  ex- 
ceptions, old  and  endowed  institutions  adhere 
as  long  as  possible,  rightly  or  wrongly,  to  the 
traditions  of  the  past.  Industrial  pursuits  were 
poorly  represented  in  the  universities  until  after 
the  Morrill  Act  of  1862,  by  which  the  States 
received  generous  grants  of  land  for  the  sup- 
port of  agricultural  and  mechanical  instruction. 
Manual  work  did  not  come  into  its  own  in  the 
pubHc  high  schooFs  until  about  1880,  and  then 
12 


THE  ANCIENT  VIEW 

only  under  the  guise  of  a  general  or  liberal  disci- 
pline. Its  connection  with  industry  was  deliber- 
ately minimized.  Trade  schools,  dating  from 
1881,  involved  no  sacrifice  of  aristocratic  preju- 
dices, as  they  stood  entirely  apart  from  general 
instruction.  Preparatory  schools,  and  especially 
part-time  and  cooperative  schools,  have  done  a 
little,  by  bringing  some  elements  of  general  in- 
struction within  the  scope  of  industrial  educa- 
tion, toward  the  establishment  of  the  claims  of 
industry  to  a  place  in  a  liberal  education.  Tech- 
nical schools  have  little  bearing  on  this  problem. 
The  public  primary  schools  now  give  indirect 
attention  to  industry.  They  have  not  yet 
advanced  to  the  point  of  giving  the  subject  its 
own  column  in  the  program  of  studies.  Except  in 
a  few  centers,  manual  training  is  only  inciden- 
tally industrial.  In  general,  the  situation  in  the 
United  States  is  that  the  aristocratic  prejudice  is 
still  in  the  field,  although  gradually  yielding  to 
the  assault  of  democratic  principles. 


II 

THE  MODERN   VIEW 

I .  Falsity  oj  the  traditional  theory  under  modern 
conditions 

(a)  As  undemocratic.  From  a  modern  stand- 
point, the  traditional  theory  of  industry  fails  in 
two  respects,  (i)  as  undemocratic,  (2)  as  inade- 
quate. According  to  tlie  view  which  found  its 
first  philosophic  expression  in  Greece,  the  busi- 
ness of  the  best  minds  is  the  pursuit  of  virtue, 
which  was  regarded  as  identical  with  culture. 
Only  the  leisured  could  devote  themselves  exclu- 
sively to  this  end.  The  masses  were  to  support 
the  classes  in  their  cultural  existence.  Modern 
democracy  rebels  against  this  hypothesis.  The 
democratic  tradition  has  already  won  for  the 
laborer  a  voice,  sometimes  even  a  controlling 
voice,  in  political  government.  It  is  making  work 
of  some  kind  obligatory  upon  almost  every  mem- 
ber of  the  community.  It  is  living  down  the 
ancient  contempt  for  the  laborer,  and  investing 
work  with  a  new  respectability  and  dignity.   Its 

14 


THE  MODERN   VIEW 

underlying  principle,  the  worth  of  man  as  man, 
is  incompatible  with  a  theory  which  excludes  the 
majority  of  mankind  from  participation  in  the 
real  ends  of  life.  It  insists  that  the  things  of  real 
value  in  life  shall  be  shared  among  all.  Culture 
must  be  made  universal. 

(b)  As  inadequate.  The  traditional  view  of  in- 
dustry fails  not  only  as  undemocratic,  but  also 
as  inadequate  to  the  facts  of  modern  life.  In 
three  respects  the  industrial  conditions  of  to-day 
differ  radically  from  those  of  earlier  times:  (i) 
industry  is  more  ambitious  than  formerly;  (2)  it 
is  more  successful;  (3)  it  is  more  scientific.  So 
broad  is  the  scale,  so  certain  the  results,  and 
so  ingenious  the  processes  of  modern  industrial 
enterprise  that  it  is  now  worthy  of  study  for  its 
own  sake.  Once  industry  was  too  simple  to  be 
worthy  of  intellectual  steel.  Now  its  manage- 
ment involves  extreme  mental  development. 
The  ablest  intellects  are  no  longer  engaged  in 
philosophy  or  art,  but  in  industry. 

2.  The  new  importance  of  industry  in  life, 
culture,  and  ideals 

{a)  A  stimulus  to  culture.  The  cultured  man 
owes  a  debt  to  industry.  Industrial  efficiency  is 
the  condition  of  his  culture.  Progress  in  indus- 

15 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

trial  operations  liberates  an  ever-increasing  pro- 
portion of  the  population  from  the  work  of 
primary  production.  But  for  industrial  progress, 
so  many  men  could  not  have  been  spared  from 
tilling  the  ground  to  become  teachers,  writers, 
and  clerks.  Modern  industry  pays  their  salaries 
and  provides  them  with  leisure  and  books.  Insti- 
tutions as  well  as  persons  are  indebted  to  indus- 
try. Schools  and  universities  arc  endowed  from 
its  proceeds.  This  alone  is  a  reason  for  the  study 
of  industry  within  their  walls.  In  ordinary  grati- 
tude they  should  attempt  to  repay  the  debt  by 
devoting  a  tithe  of  their  attention  to  industrial 
concerns. 

(b)  A  condition  of  higher  standards  of  living. 
As  a  result  of  modem  progress  in  industry,  not 
only  non-industrial  workers,  but  even  those  who 
remain  in  the  ranks  of  industry  are  furnished 
with  rarer  luxuries  than  were  formerly  accessible 
even  to  the  few.  The  laborer  has  his  piano,  the 
servant  her  silk  dress.  The  worker  lives  in  a  more 
comfortable  if  less  pretentious  dwelling  than  that 
of  a  nobleman  in  the  Middle  Ages.  It  is  true  that 
most  of  the  Greek,  Roman,  and  early  Christian 
thinkers  deprecated  high  standards  of  comfort. 
Plato  pictured  a  simple  city  as  the  ideal,  in  which 
people  would  be  satisfied  ^vith  rude  huts,  beds  of 
i6 


THE  MODERN   VIEW 

myrtle  boughs,  simple  country  fare,  and  plates  of 
fig  leaves.  Juvenal  satirized  the  pleasures  of  the 
Roman  table;  Tertullian  inveighed  against  love 
of  dress  in  women.  The  chief  merit  of  industrial 
progress,  indeed,  is  not  that  it  raises  the  standard 
of  material  living,  but  that  it  provides  new  oppor- 
tunities for  the  spiritual  hfe.  Hours  of  work  are 
shortened  to  the  advantage  of  both  body  and 
mind.  The  only  hope  of  further  advance  in  this 
direction  is  in  future  industrial  development. 

(c)  A  source  of  ideals.  Modern  industry  is  not 
only  a  stimulus  to  culture  and  a  condition  of 
higher  standards  of  living,  but  also  a  source  of 
ideals.  Moral  standards  are  developed  in  connec- 
tion with  industrial  operations.  Out  of  his  indus- 
trial experience  the  worker  has  evolved  the  ideal 
of  a  unity  of  labor.  The  invention  of  automobiles 
suggests  an  ideal  of  duty  to  pedestrians.  The 
construction  of  the  Panama  Canal  brings  into 
focus  the  ideal  of  healthy  conditions  of  work.  In 
such  ways  as  these  the  moral  life  has  been  made 
richer  and  fuller  by  industry.  Esthetic  ideals, 
too,  are  developed  by  the  invention  of  new  pro- 
cesses in  pottery,  dyeing,  and  other  industries. 
Even  the  intellectual  ideal,  truth  for  truth's  sake, 
is  strengthened  by  conscientious  and  accurate 
workmanship.   In  industry  a  man  learns  to  be 

17 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

true  to  himself.   His  work  may  deceive  others, 
himself  it  cannot  deceive. 

3.  The  status  of  industry  as  changed  by  historical 
factors 

(a)  The  rise  of  a  new  psychology.  An  epoch  in 
the  theory  of  industry  is  marked  by  the  psychol- 
ogy of  David  Hume.  According  to  Hume,  reason 
(  is  and  must  be  the  slave  of  the  passions.  This 
dictum  reversed  the  doctrine  of  Plato  and  Aris- 
totle, that  reason  should  rule  over  the  appetites. 
The  Greek  philosophers  had  held  that  the  life 
of  reason  is  the  only  life  good  in  itself,  and  that 
its  expressions  are  art,  music,  and  philosophy. 
These  accordingly  constitute  culture.  Culture  is 
rationality.  Industry  merely  provides  material 
goods  for  the  satisfaction  of  the  appetites.  It  is 
an  irrational,  uncultural  pursuit.  If  Hume  be 
right,  however,  the  shoe  is  on  the  other  foot. 
Appetite,  and  industry  as  the  satisfaction  of 
appetite,  becomes  the  central  element  of  human 
Ufe.  From  this  point  of  view  reason  is  the  serv- 
ant, not  the  master.  It  is  unnecessary  to  adopt 
this  position.  Kant  showed  how  to  overcome  it. 
Rightly  or  wrongly,  however,  Hume's  empiricism 
favored  the  growing  dignity  of  industry,  and 
called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  psychological 
18 


THE  MODERN   VIEW 

argument  of  the  Greek  masters  is  not  unanswer- 
able. Reason  and  appetite  are  not  so  different  as 
was  formerly  supposed.  They  are  interdepend- 
ent. There  is  no  longer  a  psychological  ground 
for  the  exclusion  of  industry  from  the  scope  of 
culture. 

(b)  Modern  religious  interpretation.  The  early 
Christian  Church  expected  little  but  harm  to 
come  of  luxury  or  riches.  The  good  of  the  body 
seemed  on  the  whole  antithetical  to  the  good  of 
the  soul.  Bodily  satisfactions  were  regarded  as 
matters  of  indifference  or  as  evils.  This  theory 
tended  to  diminish  industrial  achievement,  and 
to  exclude  economic  considerations  from  educa- 
tion. The  modern  tendency,  however,  is  to  dwell 
upon  those  elements  in  the  primitive  Church 
which  reacted  in  favor  of  the  development  of 
material  civilization.  It  is  pointed  out  that  the 
Apostles  followed  industrial  callings,  that  the 
laborer  is  described  as  worthy  of  his  hire,  and  that 
artisans  are  the  equals  of  kings  from  the  point  of 
view  of  eternity.  It  is  further  argued  that  indus- 
try is  not  void  of  spiritual  meaning,  and  that  its 
development  may  be  carried  on  in  a  religious 
spirit. 

(c)  The  growth  of  science.  Science  seeks  a  theo- 
retical mastery  over  nature;  industry  is  content 

19 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

with  practical  victories.  The  growth  of  science, 
however,  means  the  development  of  industry. 
The  scientific  attitude  is  experimental  and  in- 
quisitive, and  was  formerly  discouraged  by  the 
Church.  Roger  Bacon  was  only  the  most  bril- 
liant of  a  long  line  of  investigators  who  suffered 
the  ecclesiastical  censure.  The  legendary  sin  of 
Faust  consisted  in  his  desire  to  know  the  unknow- 
able, and  to  command  the  infinite.  The  modern 
tendency,  however,  is  to  develop  an  alliance 
between  science  and  religion  which  cannot  fail 
to  benefit  industry.  The  character  of  Sir  Isaac 
Newton,  at  once  scientific  and  pious,  illustrates 
the  possibilities  of  such  an  alliance.  Science,  by 
showing  the  operation  of  eternal  laws  within  the 
universe,  stimulates  religious  thought.  By  reveal- 
ing the  divine  nature  as  essentially  creative,  it 
paves  the  way  for  the  recognition  of  industry  as 
sacred.  From  this  point  of  view  industry  may 
be  defined  as  the  attempt  of  man  to  imitate  the 
creative  acts  of  the  eternal  mind. 

(d)  The  new  humanism.  Another  force  which 
has  tended  to  improve  the  status  of  industry  is  the 
movement  known  as  "humanism."  The  essen- 
tial feature  of  the  movement  is  an  emphasis  upon 
human  needs  and  interests.  Humanism  insists 
that  the  most  direct  and  immediate  concern  of 
20 


THE  MODERN   VIEW 

man  is  his  present  life.  Upon  the  acts  of  the 
present  life  all  future  life  is  based.  Man's  work 
is  not  specious  and  temporary,  but  real  and  per- 
manent. Men  are  not  puppets,  but  in  a  literal 
sense  masters  of  creation.  The  mastery  of  man 
over  nature  is  real  though  incomplete.  This  point 
of  view  gives  industry  a  new  dignity.  It  is  a  seri- 
ous attempt  to  better  the  conditions  of  human 
life.  It  is  the  tool  with  which  man  clears  the  road 
to  his  ideals.  It  is  his  effort  to  cooperate  with 
divine  purposes. 

4.  Consequences  of  an  obsolete  conception  oj 
industry 

(a)  The  antagonism  of  classes.  With  all  these 
forces  ranged  on  her  side,  industry  has  not  yet 
overcome  the  opposition  of  traditional  prejudice. 
Obsolete  conceptions  of  industry  still  abound; 
and  one  result  is  a  world-wide  strife  of  classes. 
The  aristocratic  and  industrial  classes  still  mis- 
understand one  another.  Those  who,  by  birth, 
wealth,  or  talent,  take  their  place  in  the  upper 
strata  of  society  tend  to  regard  culture  as  their 
owTi  monopoly.  It  is  for  them  to  pursue  things 
worth  while  in  themselves.  The  masses  exist  to 
support  but  not  to  share  their  culture.  The  pro- 
vision of  educational  advantages  for  all  has  not 
21 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

radically  changed  the  aristocratic  attitude.  There 
is  still  a  great  gulf  between  cultured  and  uncul- 
tured. The  worker  cannot  find  time  to  continue 
his  education  along  so-called  cultural  lines.  The 
gulf  can  be  bridged  in  one  way  only,  that  is  by 
making  industry  itself  an  integral  part  of  the 
material  of  culture.  When  this  is  effected,  the 
worker  can  obtain  his  culture  in  and  through  his 
work.  The  study  of  his  own  industry  will  make 
him  a  cultured  man. 

(b)  The  ignorance  of  industrial  operations. 
Another  result  of  the  traditional  prejudice  against 
industry  is  that  the  so-called  cultured  classes 
know  little  or  nothing  about  it.  It  would  not  be 
surprising  to  find  a  professor  in  arts  who  cannot 
tell  what  jute  or  terra-cotta  is.  It  would  be  sur- 
prising to  find  one  who  knows  how  soap  is  made. 
Yet  apart  from  tradition,  the  study  of  soap- 
making  is  as  cultural  as  the  study  of  grammar. 
When  science  fought  its  battle  for  admission  into 
the  curricula  of  the  schools  and  universities,  it 
had  to  be  pointed  out  that  a  Greek  particle  has 
no  cultural  superiority  over  a  chemical  atom. 
The  prevalent  ignorance  of  industry  among  the 
educated  is  a  serious  matter.  It  deflects  able 
minds  from  productive  occupations.  It  alienates 
the  sympathies  of  one  class  from  another.    It 

22 


THE  MODERN  VIEW 

diminishes  social  efficiency.  It  must  be  combated 
by  universal  instruction  in  the  fundamental  in- 
dustrial processes. 

(c)  Separation  of  industrial  from  general  educa- 
tion. The  traditional  prejudice  against  industry 
is  still  strong  enough  to  exclude  the  subject  from 
a  definite  place  in  the  school  curriculum.  The 
subjects  of  language,  mathematics,  geography, 
history,  etc.,  are  there,  but  not  the  subject  of 
industry.  Industry  is  treated  in  special  depart- 
ments of  special  institutions.  Its  broad  outlines 
are  not  taught  at  all. 

{d)  The  need  of  industrial  education  in  the 
elementary  school.  The  purpose  of  the  elementary 
school  is  to  give  such  knowledge,  feeling,  and 
power  as  all  citizens  should  possess.  As  far  as 
it  neglects  industry,  the  school  falls  short  of  its 
purpose.  Industry  is  among  the  departments  of 
civilization  about  which  everybody  should  know 
something.  Further,  social  sympathy  should  be 
cultivated  in  all  citizens,  and  social  sympathy 
cannot  be  developed  until  all  the  world  knows 
what  most  of  the  people  do.  Social  efficiency, 
too,  depends  upon  knowledge,  for  without  some 
acquaintance  with  industrial  affairs  even  those 
who  are  engaged  in  other  pursuits  are  handi- 
capped.    They   cannot   intelligently   cooperate 

23 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

\vith  work  which  they  know  nothing  about.  The 
modern  \icw  of  industr}',  as  a  stimulus  to  culture, 
a  condition  of  higher  standards  of  living,  and 
a  source  of  ideals,  im[ilics  that  it  should  be  no 
longer  neglected  even  in  part  by  the  elementary 
school. 


Ill 

THE  PRESENT   PROBLEM   OF   INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

I.  The  distinction  between  industrial  and 
vocational  education 

Industrml  education  is  not  the  same  thing 
as  education  for  industrial  productivity.  The 
former  is  parallel  to  mathematical,  geographical, 
or  linguistic  education.  It  is  general,  not  tech- 
nical. It  includes  those  ideas,  feelings,  and  voli- 
tions which  all  citizens  ought  to  have  concerning 
industrial  operations  and  industrial  life.  It  is  as 
necessary  for  those  who  follow  other  occupations 
as  for  those  engaged  in  industry.  Consequently 
it  falls  within  the  scope  of  the  elementary  school. 
Vocational  education,  on  the  other  hand,  sug- 
gests preparation  for  specific  callings.  This  is  not 
the  business  of  the  elementary  school,  but  of 
trade  schools  and  other  technical  institutions. 
Elementary  education  should  not  become  voca- 
tional, except  in  the  broadest  sense.  In  this  sense 
all  education  is  vocational,  since  all  education 
tends  to  increase  efficiency  in  all  callings. 

25 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

2.  What  the  elementary  school  should  do 

What  the  elementary  school  owes  to  industry 
is  the  study  of  man  as  a  worker.  This  study  is 
general,  not  technical.  The  subject  is  too  broad 
for  technical  treatment.  It  is  comparable  to  the 
study  of  language,  history,  or  art.  As  the  ele- 
mentary school  already  focuses  the  attention  of 
children  upon  man  as  a  reader,  writer,  artist, 
traveler,  mathematician,  fighter,  and  ruler,  so 
should  it  study  him  as  a  worker.  Industry  is  the 
only  great  department  of  civilization,  with  the 
exception  of  religion,  which  is  not  studied  as  such 
in  the  elementary  school.  What,  then,  should  be 
done?  This:  an  investigation  should  be  made 
of  fundamental  understandings,  values,  and 
skills  as  seen  in  industrial  work,  industrial  life, 
and  industrial  institutions.  This  general  state- 
ment may  assist  the  teacher  in  selecting  his 
material.  The  principle  is  constant,  while  the 
details  vary.  The  exact  field  of  investigation  in 
any  school  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  indus- 
trial operations  in  the  neighborhood.  Suppose 
that  iron  works,  being  near,  are  visited  and 
studied.  Children  will  notice  the  ores,  machinery, 
molds,  and  processes  used,  the  character  of  the  out- 
put, the  division  of  work,  the  skill  of  the  workers, 
26 


TfiE  PRESENT  PROBLEM 

their  relation  to  foreman,  manager,  and  employer, 
the  institutions  connected  with  the  works,  and 
the  conditions  of  labor.  Children  should  be  edu- 
cated to  take  an  intelligent  interest  in  factories  as 
well  as  in  art  galleries,  museums,  and  libraries. 

3.  The  existing  resources 

Industry  has  some  allies  on  the  program  of  the 
elementary  school.  As  a  subject  of  study,  it  has 
many  points  of  contact  with  domestic  art  and 
science,  manual  work,  commercial  geography, 
and  industrial  history.  Industry  might  be  taught 
adequately  under  these  heads.  But  it  is  not.  A 
subject  without  a  name  may  be  well  taught  in 
the  schools,  but  such  a  result  is  not  to  be  ex- 
pected. History  might  be  taught  as  a  part  of 
civics,  art,  and  hterature,  without  being  set 
down  as  history  at  all;  but  nobody  is  willing  to 
take  the  chance.  The  same  should  be  true  of 
industry.  Give  industry  its  own  place  and  name, 
and  it  will  receive  more  attention  than  as  an 
aspect  of  other  subjects.  It  will  still  preserve  an 
alliance  with  domestic  art  and  science,  manual 
work,  history,  and  geography.  It  will  not  dis- 
place these  subjects,  although  it  may  involve 
their  reconstruction.  It  will  have  escaped  from 
their  leading-strings. 

27 


INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

(a)  Domestic  art  and  science.  These  subjects 
have  a  true  relation  to  industry  in  two  respects: 
(i)  they  are  themselves  industrial,  since  they 
involve  the  transformation  of  materials  into 
forms  adapted  for  human  use;  (2)  they  introduce 
students  to  a  wide  range  of  economic  processes. 
The  tendency  is  to  emphasize  the  former  rather 
than  the  latter  relation.  Food  is  prepared,  but 
the  catering  industry  is  not  studied.  Attention  is 
concentrated  too  much  on  individual  items.  The 
study  of  actual  industries  is  neglected.  The  mak- 
ing of  a  handkerchief  in  class  difTcrs  essentially 
from  the  industrial  production  of  the  handker- 
chief. The  industry  taught  is  and  claims  to  be 
merely  domestic.  It  is  not  the  industry  of  prac- 
tical life. 

(b)  Mamial  work.  This  subject  also  is  indus- 
trial. Timber,  metal,  rafifia,  or  other  material  is 
changed  into  serviceable  form.  Sometimes  the 
aim  is  not  use  but  discipline.  In  this  case  the 
industrial  element  disappears.  Making  a  picture 
frame  is  industry;  making  a  mortise  and  tenon 
joint  is  discipline.  Manual  work  came  late  into 
the  schools,  but  its  evolution,  accelerated  by 
critical  suggestions,  has  been  remarkable.  Dur- 
ing the  last  twenty  years  it  has  passed  through 
five  stages,  and  the  time  is  ripe  for  a  sLxth.   It 

28 


THE  PRESENT   PROBLEM 

would  not  be  just  to  say  that  each  stage  has  been 
abandoned  in  turn  for  the  next.  Rather  each 
stage  has  been  absorbed  into  the  next.  The  first 
stage  was  discipHnary,  the  object  being  the 
training  of  hand  and  eye.  The  second  was  utili- 
tarian. Useful  articles  were  made,  the  criterion 
being  the  interest  of  the  pupil.  The  third  was 
to  a  certain  extent  industrial.  Objects  were  made 
to  illustrate  typical  processes.  For  example, 
rafifia-weaving  was  expected  to  typify  the  tex- 
tile industries.  The  fourth  stage  was  aesthetic. 
Manual  work  was  treated  as  a  phase  of  art,  a 
form  of  self-expression.  The  aim  was  to  cultivate 
the  natural  desire  to  express  one's  ideas  in  beau- 
tiful forms.  The  fifth  stage  was  social.  Manual 
occupations,  such  as  sewing,  weaving,  or  the 
construction  of  wooden  models,  were  used  as  a 
center  for  instruction  in  other  subjects.  It  is  time 
that  manual  training  entered  upon  a  sixth  stage, 
which  may  be  called  the  "real-industrial,"  as 
opposed  to  the  third,  or  "t>'pical-industrial."  It 
should  be  used  to  illustrate  actual  industries. 
The  typical-industrial  stage  was  marked  by  the 
construction  of  primitive  or  simplified  forms 
of  industrial  apparatus.  Such  forms  bear  little 
resemblance  to  those  in  actual  use.  If  the  pupil 
is  to  imderstand  industry  practically  and  not 

20 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

academically,  his  manual  work  should  differ  in 
no  essential  particular  from  industrial  produc- 
tion, except  that  the  work  should  be  conducted 
upon  a  more  conscious  and  critical  level. 

(c)  GcofirapJiy  and  history.  Commercial  geo- 
graphy and  industrial  history  have  a  precarious 
footing  in  the  elementary  school.  Sometimes 
they  are  taught  incidentally;  sometimes  not  at 
all.  History  still  concerns  itself  chiefly  with  poh- 
tics  and  war.  Even  in  geography,  the  commer- 
cial and  especially  the  industrial  references  are 
generally  subordinated  to  the  physical  aspect 
and  location  of  countries  and  towns.  Yet  the 
converse  scheme  is  feasible.  This  is  how  a  sixth- 
grade  teacher  taught  the  subject:  The  geography 
came  in  only  as  it  bore  on  the  industrial  side ;  that 
is,  the  climate,  soil,  rivers,  etc.,  would  only  be 
incidentally  touched  on  in  connection  %vith  the 
growing  of  wheat,  the  raising  of  silkworms,  or 
something  else  of  an  agricultural  or  industrial 
nature.  The  occupations  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  were  most  strongly  emphasized.  Among 
these  was  paper-making;  and  an  excursion  was 
made  to  a  mill  in  order  that  the  class  might 
observe  the  whole  process  from  the  log  to  the 
paper.  In  this  particular  city  there  are  many 
box  factories,  and  another  excursion  was  made 
30 


THE  PRESENT  PROBLEM 

to  one  of  these.  The  growth  of  cities  and  its 
causes  were  given  particular  attention.  In  most 
cases  the  principal  factor  was  found  to  be  com- 
mercial or  industrial.  For  example,  Albany, 
New  York,  grew  to  be  a  fairly  large  city  because 
of  its  situation  on  the  Hudson,  and  was  later 
augmented  through  the  influence  of  the  construc- 
tion of.  the  Erie  Canal,  which  made  it  a  go- 
between  for  the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  The  forests  of  the  State  were  compared 
with  forests  pre\dously  studied,  and  an  examina- 
tion was  made  of  the  different  uses  the  trees  were 
put  to,  and  the  objects  into  which  the  various 
woods  were  fashioned,  such  as  flag-poles,  piano- 
cases,  other  articles  of  furniture,  or  small  boats. 
The  superiority  of  one  kind  of  wood  to  another 
for  a  particular  purpose  was  investigated,  while 
the  habit  of  making  reference  to  the  places 
where  each  variety  of  timber  is  found  provided 
the  necessary  geographical  unity.  Should  not 
this  kind  of  teaching  be  extended  with  the  aim 
of  opening  the  minds  of  the  yoimg  to  the  great 
possibilities  of  industrial  activity,  instead  of  cen- 
tering them,  as  we  do  now,  on  unproductive 
occupations? 


31 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

4.  Experiments  in  industrial  education 

(a)  In  the  kindergarten.  A  number  of  teachers, 
taking  advantage  of  the  existing  resources  in  the 
school  curriculum,  have  experimented  with  in- 
dustrial education.  A  beginning  has  been  made 
in  the  kindergarten.  Formal  occupations  like 
paper-folding  begin  to  give  place  to  industrial 
activities  like  basket-making.  The  conservative 
school,  emphasizing  play  and  imagination,  looks 
askance  at  the  industrial  standard.  The  child  in 
the  kindergarten,  it  asserts,  lives  in  the  make- 
believe  stage.  His  business  is  with  symbols,  not 
realities.  The  objection  may  be  valid  where  the 
industrial  work  is  unimaginative  or  inartistic, 
but  not  other^^^se.  There  seems  to  be  no  reason 
why  imaginative  associations  should  not  cluster 
as  thickly  about  the  making  of  a  basket  as  about 
the  laying  of  sticks  in  s\Tnbolic  forms.  If  this  be 
so,  the  rehabilitation  of  industry  will  affect  the 
kindergarten. 

(b)  In  elementary  manual  work.  A  number  of 
attempts  have  been  made  to  bring  manual  train- 
ing into  line  with  the  real  work  of  the  nation. 
For  example,  one  school  in  the  South  insists  upon 
sewing  from  the  girls,  while  the  boys  are  allowed 
to  choose  between  woodwork  and  printing.    In 

32 


THE  PRESENT  PROBLEM 

this  school  there  is  also  a  brickyard;  and  the 
pupils  make  bricks  and  erect  additional  buildings 
for  school  purposes,  often  working  throughout  the 
summer  vacation.  A  pupil-teacher  planned  the 
library  building  and  superintended  its  erection 
by  student  labor  only.  It  is  remarked  that  in 
this  school  all  the  pupils  are  happy  and  the 
need  of  disciplinary  measures  never  seems  to 
arise.  Other  valuable  experiments  of  the  kind 
have  been  conducted  at  various  centers.  In  one 
large  city,  manual  training  is  now  conducted 
on  a  most  practical  basis.  Instead  of  accuracy 
and  skill  being  made  the  object  of  the  lesson, 
some  practical  article,  from  among  several  sug- 
gested by  the  instructor,  is  selected  by  the 
student  and  through  his  interest  in  the  finished 
product  the  necessary  discipline  is  acquired.  The 
articles  chosen  may  be  things  of  use  to  the  vari- 
ous members  of  the  family  or  to  the  teacher,  such 
as  window-boxes,  paper-weights,  plant-stands,  or 
book-shelves.  Many  of  these  objects  are  corre- 
lated with  other  studies.  Above  all,  they  are  the 
result  of  a  genuine  industrial  process. 

In  one  school  in  which  the  formal  elements  of 
manual  training  are  to  some  extent  subordinated 
to  the  significance  of  the  industrial  product,  the 
pupils  of  the  elementary  and  secondary  grades 

33 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

arc  required  to  spend  at  least  one  hour  a  day  at 
shopwork.  under  a  competent  instructor.  The 
workshop  is  open  every  afternoon  until  six 
o'clock  for  those  who  may  desire  to  spend  addi- 
tional time  upon  the  piece  of  work  they  have  in 
hand.  Many  of  the  pupils  take  advantage  of  this 
permission  to  pursue  their  industrial  activities 
after  school  hours.  A  turbine  water-wheel  was 
made  by  the  boys  of  the  seventh  grade  after 
several  days  had  been  spent  in  the  mathematical 
class  in  estimating  the  horse-power.  Two  boys, 
in  their  work  after  school  hours,  constructed  a 
working  locomotive,  others  a  model  of  an  auto- 
mobile, others  a  steamboat.  In  the  construction 
of  these  articles  the  character  of  the  material  and 
other  considerations  which  affect  the  practical 
art  of  engine-  and  ship-building  were  taken  into 
account.  On  one  occasion  the  festival  of  Hia- 
watha was  to  be  made  the  subject  of  a  school 
celebration.  The  boys  made  the  clubs  and  snow- 
shoes,  while  the  girls  designed,  carried  out,  and 
decorated  the  costumes.  In  all  these  cases  the 
shopwork  was  removed  from  the  level  of  mere 
hand  and  eye  training  to  the  more  advantageous 
ground  of  preparation  for  industrial  activities 
and  appreciation  of  the  industrial  life. 

(c)  In  instruction.  Experiments  have  not  been 
34 


THE  PRESENT   PROBLEM 

confined  to  manual  training.  Some  teachers  have 
attempted  to  give  direct  instruction  in  industry. 
Excursions  have  been  made  to  factories  in  order 
that  industrial  processes  may  be  studied  in  their 
own  home.  In  this  connection  the  evidence  of  a 
practical  teacher  may  be  quoted  with  advantage: 
"  I  am  sure  that  there  is  nothing  that  will  meet 
with  quicker  response  from  the  children  them- 
selves. Nothing  interests  them  more  than  the 
commonplace,  everyday  things  about  them.  To 
me  as  a  child,  the  manufacture  of  pins  and 
needles,  glass  and  bricks  was  a  most  fascinating 
subject  for  study.  And  later,  I  found  that  all 
youngsters  had  the  same  interest  in  penpoints 
and  pencils,  chalk  and  bullets.  A  few  copies  of 
Industries  that  I  placed  in  our  class  library  at 
school  were  soon  in  great  demand.  I  am  certain 
that  there  is  not  a  child  who  will  not  sit  up  and 
listen  entranced  to  the  tale  of  the  making  of 
granddaddy's  meerschaum  or  to  the  story  of  the 
construction  of  his  mother's  dishmop.  Truly  for 
them,  there  is  nothing  old  under  the  sun." 

5.  The  need  to  expand  our  appreciations 

Industrial  education  is  not  a  luxury,  not  a 
means  of  self-indulgence,  still  less  a  mode  of  per- 
verting the  natural  emotions  of  the  heart.   On 

35 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

the  contrary,  it  is  a  national  necessity.  Indus- 
trial operations  sulTer  from  nothing  so  much  as 
the  lack  of  intelligent  men  to  carry  them  on.  One 
hears  that  Germans,  profiting  by  their  eight 
years  of  industrial  education,  are  taking  the 
best  positions  in  the  commercial  and  industrial 
spheres,  not  only  at  home  but  abroad.  Formerly 
the  ablest  minds  were  engaged  in  philosophy,  lit- 
erature, or  some  branch  of  activity  regarded  as 
cultural  in  itself;  at  present  the  ablest  minds  are 
engaged  in  industry.  It  is  even  regarded  as 
desirable  for  the  common  good  that  a  greater 
number  of  minds  should  turn  from  professional 
to  industrial  occupations.  WTio  disapproves  of 
the  following  changes  of  vocation?  A  young 
woman  who  was  a  mediocre  teacher,  having  some 
ability  in  cooking,  increased  her  knowledge  and 
interest  in  the  art  by  a  course  at  a  cooking  school, 
and  is  now  a  popular  caterer  at  society  functions. 
Another  young  woman,  who  might  have  become 
a  clerk  or  a  typist,  preferred  to  increase  her  knowl- 
edge of  flowers  by  a  course  in  horticulture,  and 
is  now  the  proprietor  of  a  flourishing  violet  farm. 
A  certain  young  man,  instead  of  becoming  an 
indifTerent  lawy-er,  interested  himself  in  the  sub- 
ject of  animal  husbandry,  studied  it  at  college, 
and  is  at  present  a  competent  judge  of  live  stock. 
36 


THE  PRESENT  PROBLEM 

Is  it  not  probable  that  the  community  has  bene- 
fited more  from  the  efficient  caterer,  flower- 
grower,  and  stock  expert  than  it  would  have  done 
from  the  mediocre  teacher,  clerk,  or  law^^er?  We 
need  to  expand  our  appreciations  by  making  the 
study  of  industry  universal. 

The  general  problem  may  be  illustrated  by 
particular  reference  to  the  conditions  which  sur- 
round a  certain  pubhc  school  in  Brooklyn.  In 
this  school  formal  manual  training  and  shopwork 
are  prescribed  for  all  boys  after  the  third  year, 
and  cooking  and  sewing  for  all  girls  of  similar 
grade.  As  might  be  expected,  however,  the  man- 
ual and  domestic  training  by  no  means  serve  to 
attract  children  to  an  industrial  Hfe,  or  even  to 
prepare  them  for  it.  The  boys  become  clerks  or 
office-boys;  the  girls  become  unskilled  hands  in 
factories  or  serve  behind  the  counters  of  depart- 
ment stores.  These  avenues  of  employment  are 
consequently  choked  with  applicants.  It  would 
certainly  be  desirable  that  the  children  should  be 
given  such  ideas  of  skilled  trades  and  more  com- 
plicated industrial  processes  as  might  attract  the 
energies  of  a  number  of  them  into  more  ambi- 
tious occupations.  Very  near  the  school  the 
trades  of  carpenter,  blacksmith,  wheelwright, 
etc.,  are  in  operation,  while  neighboring  factories 

37 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

carry  on  the  making  of  clocks,  tablets,  maltine, 
shoes,  and  shirt-waists  almost  within  sound  of 
the  school  classrooms.  Within  walking  distance 
the  children  may  fmd  shipping,  railroad  trans- 
portation, wood-yards,  paints,  electric  power- 
houses, construction  in  concrete,  and  the  varied 
activities  of  the  building  trade.  The  neglect  of 
these  opportunities  for  a  practical  yet  highly 
intellectual  education  is  either  the  result  of  a 
narrow  educational  outlook,  or  of  a  false  view 
of  the  place  and  value  of  industry  in  human  expe- 
rience. 


IV 


THE   NECESSARY    RECONSTRUCTION    OF   THE 
SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

I.  Review  of  the  present  place  of  industry  in  the 
curriculum 

(a)  The  lack  of  industrial  purpose.  Speaking 
exactly,  one  is  compelled  to  admit  that  industry 
—  in  fact,  the  whole  economic  life  —  is  seldom 
directly  represented  in  an  elementary  school  at 
all.  The  alliance  of  art,  manual  work,  and  other 
subjects  with  industry  is  potential  rather  than 
active.  There  are  several  radical  defects  in  the 
scheme  of  art  and  manual  work  which  remove 
these  subjects  from  the  category  of  genuine  indus- 
trial education.  In  the  first  place,  they  are  not 
real  but  theoretical  occupations.  In  some  cases 
they  are  taught  merely  for  discipline.  They 
neither  create  things  that  society  really  wants, 
nor  use  the  methods  of  contemporary  industry. 
Knowing  the  unreality  of  the  work  upon  which 
he  is  engaged,  the  pupil  drops  it  on  leaving  school 
never  to  touch  it  again.  In  the  second  place,  the 

39 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

range  of  art  and  manual  work  in  the  schools  is 
too  narrow.  Where  work  is  done  in  wood,  it  is 
generally  limited  to  certain  lines  of  elementary 
cabinet-making.  There  is  no  reference  to  the 
other  great  wood  industries.  If  there  is  work  in 
clay,  it  is  limited  to  modeling.  One  hears  nothing 
of  the  great  compressing  industries,  no  word  of 
brick  or  terra-cotta.  Art-work  in  the  schools 
seldom  makes  any  pretense  of  industrial  purpose. 
'\  Pure  art  seems  to  be  its  aim,  not  artistic  work.  It 
seeks  technical  perfection  rather  than  economic 
service.  In  short,  neither  manual  work  nor  art 
develops  industrial  interests. 

(b)  The  disciplinary  aim.  Even  with  the  limi- 
tations described  above,  however,  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  manual  activities  of  the  schools 
have  a  natural  relation  to  industry.  Work  in 
wood,  for  example,  fulfills  the  definition  of  indus- 
try, since  it  transforms  natural  objects  into  ideal 
forms.  The  trouble  is  that  the  industrial  elements 
in  the  school  curriculum  are  so  specialized  that 
they  do  not  represent  industry  at  large.  They 
are  whittled  down  to  a  negligible  quantity  by  the 
theory  that  regards  education  as  little  more  than 
a  process  of  discipHne.  By  way  of  illustration, 
let  us  consider  the  content  of  a  first  year's  course 
in  woodwork.  During  the  year,  the  pupil  may 
40 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

learn  to  use  certain  tools,  to  plane  a  piece  of  wood 
truly,  to  square  it  on  four  sides,  to  construct  a 
joint,  and  to  make  a  picture  frame  embodying 
that  joint.  From  a  disciplinary  point  of  view, 
this  is  enough  work  for  one  year.  Technical  per- 
fection is  exacted,  good  habits  are  formed,  a 
social  atmosphere  is  enjoyed,  hand  and  eye  are 
coordinated,  and  benefit  is  derived  from  the  mus- 
cular exercise.  These  advantages  may  well  be 
sufficient  to  justify  the  place  of  manual  work  in 
the  schools.  Our  point  is,  they  all  belong  to  the 
field  of  general  training  and  discipline.  They  do 
not  include  an  insight  into  the  nation's  work. 
Industrial  knowledge  is  unrepresented. 

2.  The  need  of  a  subject  called  ^'Industry" 

Only  one  solution  of  the  problem  promises  to 
be  satisfactory.  The  curriculum  of  the  elemen- 
tary school  must  undergo  a  reconstruction. 
Industry  must  appear  as  a  subject  upon  the  pro- 
gram of  studies.  It  must  be  given  a  local  habita- 
tion and  a  name.  This  conclusion  is  logical,  since 
the  curriculum  is  supposed  to  represent  all  the 
fundamental  branches  of  civilization.  It  is  right, 
since  industry  has  proved  worthy  of  study.  It  is 
necessary,  since  only  in  this  way  can  one  be  cer- 
tain that  industry  is  studied  by  all.  It  is  a  duty, 
41 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

since  the  very  possibility  of  general  education 
depends  upon  the  industrial  efficiency  of  the 
people.  Let  no  one  say  tliat  the  curriculum  is 
overcrowded.  Industry  can  be  taught  with  little 
or  no  addition  to  the  burden.  The  end  can  be 
attained  by  a  process  of  reorganization.  Manual 
work  may  be  included  wholly  or  in  part  under 
industry.  Woodwork  for  boys,  sewing  and  cook- 
ing for  girls,  will  be  treated  in  connection  with 
the  study  of  timber,  textile  and  food  industries. 
In  this  way  manual  work  will  be  transformed,  but 
not  necessarily  increased.  The  industrial  section 
of  geography  and  history  can  also  become  part 
of  the  new  subject.  A  slight  curtailment  of  other 
subjects  may  become  necessary  in  order  to  pro- 
vide time  for  instruction  about  industries  and 
for  excursions  to  local  factories.  Time-tables 
differ  so  much  that  this  problem  must  be  left  to 
the  practical  teacher  or  superintendent. 

3.  The  significance  of  the  new  subject 

The  new  subject  will  involve  a  change  of  con- 
tent. Disciplinary  occupations  will  be  mini- 
mized. The  pupil  will  engage  in  modeling  indus- 
trial implements  and  making  industrial  products. 
The  necessary  discipline  will  be  obtained  by  the 
way.  A  class  of  pupils  may  cooperate  in  con- 
42 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

stnicting  a  model  of  a  mill,  each  pupil  making  a 
part.  Pupils  will  learn  about  the  great  national 
industries  with  which  their  work  is  connected. 
They  will  visit  local  works.  Far  from  being  a 
change  in  name  alone,  the  introduction  of  the 
subject  of  industry  into  the  elementary  school 
curriculum  may  be  expected  to  modify  the  entire 
character  of  instruction  throughout  the  institu- 
tion. The  proposed  reform  will  make  school  work 
more  practical,  more  independent  of  books,  more 
interesting  to  the  pupils,  and  more  indispensable 
in  the  eyes  of  the  community. 

4.  Conduct  oj  the  subject 

The  field  of  the  teaching  of  industry  in  the 
elementary  school  may  be  divided  into  three 
parts,  (i)  instruction,  (2)  observation,  and 
(3)  manual  action.  Instruction  will  begin  with 
the  history  and  description  of  industries  con- 
ducted near  the  school,  and  will  extend  to  all  the 
great  national  industries.  It  will  thus  include 
historical  and  geographical  references.  The 
maps  of  the  district,  of  the  State,  and  of  the 
United  States  will  be  freely  used  in  the  study 
of  this  portion  of  the  subject.  Observation  will 
involve  excursions  to  farms,  factories,  or  govern- 
ment works  in  the  neighborhood.  Manual  work 

43 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

will  be  necessary  in  order  to  prepare  for  instruc- 
tion and  to  fix  its  results,  and  will  also  serve  to 
illustrate  objects  and  implements  that  have  been 
observed. 

5.  Relation  to  manual  action 

Believers  in  manual  work  may  be  inclined  to 
resent  the  incorporation  of  that  subject  in  an- 
other. Manual  work  has  justified  its  place  in  the 
curriculum.  It  has  exercised  the  bodies,  trained 
the  muscles,  promoted  the  artistic  taste,  devel- 
oped the  originality,  and  attracted  the  interest  of 
school  pupils.  True,  and  there  must  be  no  retro- 
grade step.  All  these  advantages  will  remain. 
Manual  action  to  illustrate  industrial  processes 
will  conserve  them  all,  and  add  others.  There  is 
no  going  back.  Not  an  hour  need  be  taken  from 
the  time  allotted  to  manual  action.  The  pupil 
will  not  be  less  interested,  but  more,  in  modeling 
actual  products  and  illustrating  actual  processes 
than  he  is  in  the  more  formal  procedure  of  ordi- 
nary manual  training.  The  subject  of  industry 
may  even  become  the  special  property  of  the 
manual  training  teacher.  In  most  schools,  how- 
ever, the  class  teacher  will  do  the  work.  It  will  be 
stimulating,  because  teacher  and  pupil  arc  genu- 
ine co-workers.  It  will  be  informative,  for  few 
44 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

teachers  know  much  about  industrial  enterprise. 
It  will  be  attractive,  because  human  nature  is 
fascinated  by  action.  The  demand  on  the  manual 
workshop  to  illustrate  industrial  operations  will 
probably  come  from  the  children  themselves. 

6.  Relation  to  other  subjects 
In  the  elementary  school,  domestic  art  and 
science  are  usually  represented  by  cooking  and 
sewing.  These  and  similar  occupations  are  parts 
of  manual  work,  and  will  be  embodied  in  the  new 
subject  of  industry.  For  girls,  industrial  instruc- 
tion will  center  to  a  large  extent  about  the  foods 
and  textiles,  although  there  is  nothing  inappro- 
priate in  a  study  of  the  metals,  clays,  and  woods. 
What  is  usually  neglected  in  domestic  art  and 
science  is  the  connection  of  the  processes  per- 
formed by  pupils  with  actual  industrial  condi- 
tions. The  very  name  of  the  new  subject  will 
tend  to  remedy  this  defect.  Girls  will  not  only 
learn  to  make  cakes  and  pocket  handkerchiefs; 
they  will  also  learn  to  understand  the  industries 
of  baking,  catering,  and  clothing.  Geography 
and  history  will  either  surrender  their  industrial 
aspects  to  the  new  subject,  or  else  supplement 
it  by  a  definite  treatment  of  those  aspects. 
Again,  if  design  is  not  already  included  in  draw- 

45 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

ing,  it  ought  to  be  embodied  in  the  subject  of 
industry. 

7.  Relation  to  the  theory  of  culture 

How  does  the  teaching  of  industry  accord  with 
the  standard  of  culture?  According  to  the  tradi- 
tional opinion,  a  study  that  is  useful  cannot  also 
be  cultural.  Culture  consists  of  philosophy,  lit- 
erature, and  the  fine  arts.  We  have  traced  this 
view  to  its  origin  in  aristocratic  prejudice  and  an 
obsolete  psychological  analysis.  We  need  a  new 
theory  of  culture.  The  old  definition  may  be 
retained,  —  culture  is  the  study  of  things  worth 
while  in  themselves.  It  is  the  content,  not  the 
form,  of  the  definition  that  must  be  changed. 
Things  worth  while  in  themselves  include  all 
great  matters,  whether  useful  for  external  ends 
or  not.  The  industrial  life  is  a  great  matter.  It 
lies  at  the  root  of  all  civilization.  It  calls  for  the 
highest  mental  powers.  It  enriches  the  moral  life 
with  opportunities  for  the  exercise  of  the  eco- 
nomic virtues.  If  culture  is  the  study  of  great 
things,  it  can  no  longer  exclude  industry. 

There  are  those  who  would  define  culture 
differently.  Culture  has  nothing  to  do  with  con- 
tent, they  say,  but  is  simply  an  attitude.  If  so, 
it  consists  in  the  habit  of  viewing  things  in  a 
46 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

large-minded  way.  This  is  precisely  the  attitude 
necessary  for  the  study  of  modern  industry. 
Pettiness  has  no  place;  the  larger  issues  must  be 
faced,  and  the  whole  of  human  nature  is  involved. 
Thus,  however  defined,  culture  includes  the  study 
of  industry. 

8.  Relation  to  primitive  industry 

How  far  the  primitive  development  of  industry 
may  be  expected  to  furnish  a  clue  to  the  educa- 
tion of  children  is  an  open  question.  Granted, 
primitive  man  lives  like  a  child  in  the  moment; 
like  a  child  he  cares  only  for  the  present,  having 
no  thought  for  the  future;  like  a  child  he  is 
self -centered ;  and  above  all,  like  a  child  he  has 
comparatively  little  control  over  the  natural  phe- 
nomena about  him.  It  is  not  necessary  to  sup- 
pose that  the  stages  of  industry  through  which 
the  race  may  have  passed  are  normally  recapitu- 
lated in  an  identical  serial  order  in  the  life  of  each 
individual.  Even  if  it  be  true  that  every  civilized 
people  has  passed  through  the  economic  stages 
of  hunting,  fishing,  pasturage,  and  agriculture,  — 
no  very  reliable  generaUzation,  —  it  is  idle  to 
imagine  that  the  interests  of  a  boy  are  definitely 
connected  by  nature  in  turn  with  hunting,  fish- 
ing, herding,  and  tilling  the  ground.  This  form 

47 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

of  the  theory  of  recapitulation  is  not  to  be 
taken  seriously.  Further,  any  form  of  the  theory 
is  open  to  the  objection  that  nothing  could  be 
more  different  from  the  rigid  customs  of  primi- 
tivism  than  the  flexible  manifestations  of  child 
nature.  Children,  however,  are  radically  at  one 
with  primitive  man  in  their  lack  of  introspec- 
tive and  critical  power,  and  in  the  absence  of 
an  adequate  control  over  their  environment, 
whether  in  the  direction  of  stores,  tools,  methods, 
or  elimination  of  waste. 

In  two  respects  the  environments  of  the  child 
and  the  savage  are  alike  —  they  stimulate  little 
thought  and  exact  httle  foresight  or  control.  Both 
the  child  and  the  savage  as  a  rule  Uve  with  little 
care,  little  foresight,  and  little  industry.  The 
environment  of  each  is  simple.  Probably  such 
similarities  are  sufficient  to  account  for  the  large 
field  over  which  the  natural  interests  of  children 
and  those  of  primitive  people  appear  to  be  iden- 
tical. There  is  no  need  to  exaggerate  the  influ- 
ence of  heredity,  or  to  suppose,  with  the  follow- 
ers of  the  culture  epoch  theory,  that  the  pursuits 
of  the  race  have  not  only  been  proportionately 
registered  in  the  instincts  of  human  beings,  but 
even  reappear  as  instincts  in  their  original  order. 
It  is  enough  that  two  simple  environments  may 
48 


THE  SCHOOL  CURRICULUM 

be  expected  to  be  more  alike  than  two  complex, 
or  one  complex  and  one  simple;  and  merely  for 
this  reason  a  certain  resemblance  between  the 
interests  of  children  and  those  of  primitive  man 
appears  to  be  fundamentally  involved. 

Because  the  respective  environments  are  sim- 
ilar, then,  the  interests  and  occupations  of  prim- 
itive man  furnish  a  clue  to  the  interests  and 
activities  appropriate  to  the  education  of  chil- 
dren. The  curriculum  itself,  being  dictated  by 
the  needs,  the  inheritance,  and  the  interests  of 
the  present  rather  than  by  those  of  the  past, 
need  not  be  affected  by  primitive  industrial  con- 
ditions. In  domestic  art,  children  will  not  make 
primitive  forms  of  headgear,  but  hats  of  the  latest 
fashion;  and  if  they  should  go  to  the  length  of 
constructing  Indian  baskets,  it  is  chiefly  because 
the  baskets  are  as  useful  and  beautiful  when 
measured  by  modern  standards  as  in  their 
original  social  setting.  It  is  not  the  course  of 
study  but  the  method  of  the  elementar>^  school 
that  is  likely  to  be  advantaged  by  a  knowledge  of 
the  conditions  of  primitive  industry.  No  matter 
what  primitive  man  did  or  needed  to  do  in  the 
distant  past,  the  materials  of  a  school  curriculum 
cannot  be  rearranged  in  the  light  of  his  past 
activities.   On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  corre- 

49 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

sponding  objection  to  the  modification  of  method, 
while  it  is  not  difficult  to  show  that  there  is 
greater  logical  necessity  for  such  a  modification. 
Society  cares  little  in  what  manner  the  child  is  to 
be  put  in  possession  of  his  inheritance  as  long  as 
the  end  is  reached.  Moreover,  the  fact  that  a 
child  lives  in  some  respects  like  primitive  man 
has  little  to  do  with  the  materials,  but  much 
with  the  processes,  of  his  intelligence  and  inter- 
ests. It  follows  that  while  there  may  be  little 
gain  in  teaching  children  the  things  that  primi- 
tive man  has  done,  there  may  be  much  advan- 
tage in  training  them  in  the  identical  processes 
and  methods  by  which  humanity  has  been  shaped 
and  guided  to  its  present  condition. 


THE  NECESSARY  RECONSTRUCTION  OF 
SCHOOL  METHOD 

I.  Instruction 

Let  us  now  consider  how  to  teach  the  subject 
of  industry.  The  t>T)ical  methods  will  be  instruc- 
tion, observation,  and  action.  At  present  teach- 
ers of  manual  work  rely  chiefly  upon  action. 
Observation  of  industries  is  seldom  attempted; 
and  instruction  in  the  broad  facts  of  industry 
is  conspicuously  absent.  Too  often  the  teacher 
fails  to  instruct  where  instruction  is  most  appro- 
priate; that  is,  in  connection  with  action.  Con- 
sequently the  first  method  to  be  insisted  upon  in 
the  subject  of  industry,  which  is  to  include  part 
or  the  whole  of  manual  training,  is  instruction. 
Pupils  must  be  taught  the  meaning  of  industry, 
the  scope  and  importance  of  industrial  enterprise, 
the  value  of  labor  not  only  in  terms  of  coin,  but 
in  terms  of  feeling.  They  must  become  so 
familiar  with  industrial  arts,  that  their  minds, 
not  being  strange  to  such  subjects,  will  not  recoil 

51 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

from  the  thought  of  economic  emplo>Tncnt. 
Manual  action  alone  cannot  bring  this  about; 
and  even  the  observation  of  industries,  unsup- 
ported by  instruction,  falls  short  of  the  mark. 
We  must  instruct;  but  this  does  not  mean  that 
the  teacher  is  to  din  his  words  into  the  pupil's 
ears  and  imagine  that  every  word  goes  home. 
We  must  instruct  scientifically. 

There  is  little  need  to  describe  an  instruction 
lesson  to  teachers.  We  are  all  familiar  with  sev- 
eral forms  of  procedure.  Let  us  suppose,  however, 
that  the  month's  work  is  to  be  upon  the  paper 
industry.  A  period  from  10.30  to  11  a.m.  on 
Mondays,  together  with  a  period  from  2  to  4  p.m. 
on  Tuesdays,  may  have  been  set  apart  for  the 
subject.  In  general,  the  former  period  will  be 
given  to  intellectual,  the  latter  to  manual  work. 
The  distinction  is  relative,  not  absolute,  but  for 
purposes  of  analysis  it  may  serve.  On  the  first 
Monday  the  teacher  gives  an  introductory  lesson. 
He  instructs  the  pupils  about  paper-making,  and 
perhaps  even  the  distribution  and  use  of  the 
product.  He  begins  by  finding  out  what  the 
pupils  already  know  about  the  subject.  Should 
he  discover  in  his  class  the  child  of  a  worker  in 
the  trade,  he  will  make  use  of  the  opportunity  to 
augment  his  own  knowledge  and  that  of  the  class. 
52 


SCHOOL  METHOD 

The  next  step  may  be  to  show  photographs  of  the 
works  to  be  visited,  or  other  illustrative  material. 
The  next  will  probably  be  a  description  of  the 
industry  by  the  teacher,  with  the  aid  of  map, 
diagram,  or  other  illustration.  The  next  may  be 
drill,  concluding  with  note-taking. 

2.  Excursions 

The  afternoon  of  the  following  day  is  devoted 
to  a  visit  to  the  paper  mill.  The  whole  process  is 
observed;  and  the  children,  having  learned  what 
to  look  for,  may  be  expected  to  see  more  than 
would  be  apparent  to  the  casual  visitor.  The 
objection  is  raised  that  the  factories  may  close 
their  doors  to  the  children.  In  a  few  cases  this 
will  be  so;  but  there  are  many  hospitable  facto- 
ries, and  many  manufacturers  who  realize  that 
their  works  will  benefit  by  the  development  of 
industrial  interests  and  industrial  knowledge. 
At  least,  let  the  difficulty  arise  before  much  is 
made  of  it.  There  are  farms,  bridges,  and  build- 
ings as  well  as  factories  to  be  visited;  state, 
national,  and  municipal  works  as  well  as  private 
enterprises  to  be  observed.  Even  when  a  pro- 
gram has  to  be  provided  for  several  classes,  it  is 
not  easy  to  believe  in  the  impossibility  of  arrang- 
ing six  or  eight  industrial  excursions  for  each 

53 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

class  during  the  year.  The  excursion  is  the  key  to 
the  method  of  the  subject.  Its  value  has  been 
tested,  and  it  is  not  impracticable. 

So  central  is  the  excursion  in  the  scheme  of 
industrial  education  that  a  practical  illustration 
of  its  use  may  be  helpful.  A  class  of  children,  of 
the  average  age  of  only  seven  years,  was  taken  to 
visit  a  great  wool  store.  The  children  had  talked 
about  sheep,  discussed  pictures  of  them,  sung 
songs  about  them,  played  games  representing 
them,  handled  their  wool,  and  had  even  drawn, 
modeled,  and  built  such  objects  as  sheep,  sheds, 
shears,  bales,  and  wagons.  They  had  brought  to 
school  their  own  picture  cards  and  scraps  of 
colored  wool;  and  had  unraveled  woolen  gar- 
ments to  show  the  weaving.  Their  parents  read- 
ily consented  to  the  excursion  and  provided  the 
necessary  fares.  The  children  walked  in  fours, 
the  outside  boy  of  each  four  being  responsible  for 
keeping  his  particular  group  up  with  the  class. 
At  crossings,  the  leaders  waited  for  a  signal  from 
the  teacher  before  advancing.  Drivers  of  ve- 
hicles showed  the  children  every  consideration. 
Conductors  and  the  public  vied  in  assisting  them 
to  board  and  alight  from  cars.  Arrived  at  their 
destination,  the  children  gazed  at  great  wagons 
laden  with  fleeces,  bale  after  bale  of  which  was 
54 


SCHOOL  METHOD 

being  hoisted  to  the  upper  stories  of  the  building. 
Having  finished  their  task,  the  workmen  entered 
into  conversation  with  the  children,  whose  hearts 
were  completely  won  by  the  gift  of  fragments  of 
wool.  The  building  was  entered,  and  the  young 
visitors  were  shown  by  an  assistant  through  the 
various  rooms  containing  wool.  Exclamations  of 
surprise  and  pleasure  broke  from  the  children  as 
they  approached  each  article  in  the  show  room. 
Here  were  stuffed  sheep  with  long,  clean,  well- 
combed  wool.  In  the  showcase  was  wool  in  all 
its  stages,  raw  and  dirty,  washed  and  scoured, 
combed  and  wound  in  skeins.  An  animated  dis- 
cussion, to  which  the  bystanders  lent  their  ears 
with  amusement  and  interest,  took  place  as  to 
the  relative  merits  of  the  prize  sheep  shown  in 
pictures  on  the  wall.  Mounting  a  steep  flight  of 
stairs,  the  children  came  upon  bales  of  wool,  not 
wired  like  the  skins,  but  surrounded  by  canvas 
bagging,  and  hoisted  by  means  of  an  open  ele- 
vator. In  the  far  corner  were  open  bales;  and 
many  were  the  estimates  of  the  number  of  sheep 
required  to  furnish  the  wool  of  one  bale.  On  leav- 
ing, each  received  a  piece  of  clean  wool.  Having 
thanked  their  entertainers,  they  wound  up  with 
cheers  and  returned  to  school. 


55 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

3.  Manual  action 

After  the  excursion,  the  three  remaining  after- 
noons allotted  to  industry  during  the  month  are 
devoted  to  the  construction  of  models  or  such 
objects  as  lend  themselves  to  concrete  represen- 
tation. Thus  three  afternoons  in  the  month  are 
given  to  manual  work.  The  models  will  be  se- 
lected in  accordance  with  what  has  been  learned 
and  seen.  In  general,  different  members  of  the 
class  may  be  permitted  to  construct  different 
objects.  In  some  cases  the  cooperative  plan,  by 
which  each  child  makes  a  part  of  a  large  model,  is 
best.  The  parts  are  put  together,  and  the  model 
becomes  the  property  of  the  school,  to  be  used  in 
future  lessons,  or  to  be  preserved  in  the  school 
museum.  In  other  cases  it  will  be  possible  for 
each  child  to  make  a  useful  article  which  he  may 
keep;  but  the  direct  object  of  manual  work  will 
not  be  utility  in  this  sense,  but  the  illustration  of 
genuine  industrial  operations. 

One  danger  should  be  guarded  against.  Unless 
the  teacher  maintains  high  standards  of  exe- 
cution, the  disciplinary  advantages  of  manual 
training  may  be  unduly  sacrificed.  Manual  work 
must  continue  to  produce  good  habits.  Care, 
accuracy,  and  neatness  must  still  be  cultivated. 
56 


SCHOOL  METHOD 

The  work  must  be  as  carefully  planned  and  as 
conscientiously  executed  as  when  discipline  was 
regarded  as  the  sole  end  of  manual  action.  Mis- 
takes must  be  corrected  and  the  correct  form 
practiced.  The  habit  of  skillful  work  is  as  pos- 
sible of  achievement  under  the  new  system  as 
under  the  old. 

4.  Oral  expression 

The  first  morning  period  of  the  series  has  been 
allotted  to  preparatory  instruction.  The  second, 
since  it  follows  the  excursion,  may  be  given  up  to 
a  discussion  of  what  has  been  seen  and  learned. 
The  views  of  the  children  are  expressed,  and  a 
comparison  is  drawn  between  what  they  had  ex- 
pected and  what  they  had  actually  found.  The 
teacher's  part  is  chiefly  to  regulate  the  expression 
of  opinions,  and  to  write  upon  the  blackboard 
the  contributions  that  are  worthy  of  such  notice. 
The  period  may  close  by  note-taking,  based  upon 
what  has  been  set  on  the  board. 

5.  Sftidy 

In  the  third  week,  the  morning  period  may  be 
given  up  to  a  study  of  the  larger  aspects  of  indus- 
try.  In  the  case  cited,  the  children  will  study 
books  or  articles  bearing  upon  the  paper  indus- 
57 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 


try.  They  may  be  encouraged  to  bring  such 
materials  to  school.  Perhaps  a  textbook  may  be 
employed ;  perhaps  a  copy  of  a  magazine  may  be 
purchased  and  used.  The  subject  of  industry  is 
too  vital  to  remain  long  without  its  textbook; 
indeed,  there  are  books  in  existence  that  would 
be  found  of  great  service. 

6.  Written  expression 

The  final  morning  period  of  the  series  will 
probably  be  given  to  written  composition  on  the 
subject  of  the  excursion  or  on  the  industry  in 
general.  The  pupil  has  something  to  say,  and 
the  process  of  committing  his  ideas  to  paper  is 
one  of  the  best  means  of  securing  their  perma- 
nence. It  is  unnecessary  to  discuss  the  methods 
appropriate  to  the  teaching  of  written  expression. 

The  method  of  conducting  the  subject  of  in- 
dustry for  one  month  may  be  summarized  as 
follows :  — 


First  week 

Suemd  week 

Third  week 

Fourth  week 

Monday 
10.30  to 

II.  A.M. 

Tuesday 
3  to  4  PH. 

Introductory 
lesson  on 
paper-making 

Excursion  to 
paper  mill 

Oral  discussion 
of  the  visit 

Construction 
of  models  and 
other  illustra- 
tions 

Study  of   text- 
book or  maga- 
zines 

Construction 
of  models  and 
other  illustra- 
tions 

Written 
composition 

Construction 

of  models 
and  other 
illustrations 

58 


SCHOOL  METHOD 

The  above  scheme  is  suggestive  only.  The  pur- 
pose of  this  book  is  not  to  dictate  the  details,  but 
to  expound  the  principles  of  elementary  indus- 
trial education. 

7.  Suggestions  from  primitive  industry 

We  have  observed  that  society  cares  more  for 
the  course  to  be  studied  than  for  the  methods 
to  be  used  in  the  schools.  Accordingly,  while  the 
curriculum  must  be  measured  by  present  stand- 
ards, method  may  be  influenced  by  other  con- 
siderations. In  the  sphere  of  method,  the  teacher 
is  warranted  in  accepting  suggestions  based  on 
the  correspondence  between  the  interests  of 
children  and  those  of  primitive  mankind.  In 
these  pages,  the  term  "primitive"  is  applied  to 
tribal  conditions  in  which  ci\^lization  is  reduced 
to  its  simplest  elements.  Primitive  man  Uves  in 
and  for  the  moment.  He  is  improvident,  and 
is  guided  by  instinct  rather  than  reason.  He  is 
conservative  in  his  customs.  He  prefers  the 
decoration  of  his  person  and  weapons  to  other 
forms  of  work.  He  is  industrious  only  to  acquire 
food.  He  thinks  only  under  the  pressure  of  novel 
circumstances;  and,  as  a  consequence,  has  little 
control  over  his  surroundings.  In  most  or  all  of 
these  features  there  is  a  parallel  to  child  life.  As 

59 


INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATION 

one  would  deal  with  primitive  mankind,  so,  to 
the  extent  of  the  parallel,  does  one  deal  with  chil- 
dren. The  child,  like  the  savage,  prefers  immedi- 
ate to  distant  aims.  When  Governor  Grey  wished 
to  get  work  done  by  Australian  natives,  he  paid 
them  sixpence  in  the  middle  of  the  day,  and 
a  shilling  at  the  end.  How  like  the  method  of 
encouraging  children!  For  them,  the  teaching  of 
industry  should  be  related  to  current  needs  and 
interests.  It  is  useless  to  tell  a  class  that  the  day 
will  come  when  they  will  appreciate  it.  Children 
seldom  look  forward  so  far.  The  teacher  will 
illustrate  his  instruction  by  objects  and  proc- 
esses which  interest  the  children  7tow.  In  fact 
the  production  of  things  which  the  child  himself 
possesses,  or  desires  to  possess,  is  the  ideal  start- 
ing-point for  the  study  of  national  industry. 
From  this  beginning,  the  field  of  vision  may  be 
expanded  until  a  liberal  knowledge  has  been 
gained  of  the  whole  industrial  arena. 

8.  The  new  features  in  school  method 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  new  methods  demanded 
by  the  subject  of  industry  are  two:  (i)  the  excur- 
sion to  industrial  centers,  and  (2)  the  free  use  of 
instruction  in  connection  with  manual  activity. 
These  methods,  of  course,  are  only  relatively 
60 


SCHOOL  METHOD 

new;  but  they  are  not  generally  adopted  in  the 
elementary  school.  Usually  the  excursion  is  con- 
fined to  the  field  of  nature-study,  and  instruction 
in  connection  with  manual  work  is  confined  to 
the  task  in  hand.  The  result  of  the  new  methods 
should  be  a  new  familiarity  with  industrial  arts 
and  a  new  interest  in  industrial  processes  and 
products.  The  excursion  will  make  school  work 
more  real  and  up-to-date.  Instruction  wall  widen 
its  scope.  The  former  method  will  develop  in- 
terest, the  latter  knowledge;  and  the  two  will 
interact  in  such  a  way  as  to  remove  traditional 
ignorance,  banish  traditional  prejudices,  and  re- 
form traditional  standards  of  culture. 


OUTLINE 

I.  THE  ANCIENT  VIEW  OF  INDUSTRY  AND 
INDUSTRIAL   EDUCATION 

1.  Culture,  education  and  industry i 

2.  Ancient  prejudices  survive  in  modem  culture  and 
education 2 

3.  The  Greek  prejudice  against  industry    ....  3 
(a)  Aristocratic  occupations  glorified  in  culture  .  3 
(6)  The  status  of  industry  as  affected  by  slavery  4 
(c)  The  thinkers,  poets,  and  historians  aristo- 
cratic      6 

4.  The  historic  descent  of  Greek  prejudice     ...  8 

(a)  Rome 8 

ib)  The  Middle  Ages 8 

(c)  Scholasticism g 

(d)  The  Renaissance g 

(c)  The  Reformation 10 

(/)  England 10 

(g)  The  United  States 11 

II.   THE   MODERN   VIEW 

I.  Falsity  of  the  traditional  theory  imder  modern 

conditions 14 

(o)  As  undemocratic 14 

(b)  As  inadequate 15 

62 


OUTLINE 

2.  The  new  importance  of  industry  in  life,  culture, 
and  ideals 15 

(a)  A  stimulus  to  culture 15 

(b)  A  condition  of  higher  standards  of  living  .     .  16 

(c)  A  source  of  ideals 17 

3.  The  status  of  industry  as  changed  by  historical 
factors 18 

(a)  The  rise  of  a  new  psychology 18 

(b)  Modern  religious  interpretation 19 

(c)  The  growth  of  science 19 

(d)  The  new  hmnanism 20 

4.  Consequences  of  an  obsolete  conception  of  indus- 
try     21 

(a)  The  antagonism  of  classes 21 

(b)  The  ignorance  of  industrial  operations  .     .     ,  22 

(c)  Separation  of  industrial  from  general  educa- 
tion   23 

(d)  The  need  of  industrial  education  in  the  ele- 
mentary school 23 

III.   THE  PRESENT  PROBLEM   OF  INDUSTRIAL 
EDUCATION 

1.  The  distinction  between  industrial  and  vocational 
education 25 

2.  What  the  elementary  school  should  do  ....  26 

3.  The  existing  resources 27 

(fl)  Domestic  art  and  science 28 

(b)  Manual  work 28 

(c)  Geography  and  history 30 

4.  Experiments  in  industrial  education 32 

63 


OUTLINE 

(a)  In  the  kindergarten 32 

(b)  In  elementary  manual  work 32 

(r)  In  instruction 34 

5.  The  need  to  expand  our  appreciations   ....  35 

IV.     THE    NECESSARY     RECONSTRUCTION  OF 
THE  SCHOOL   CURRICULUM 

1.  Review  of  the  present  place  of  industry  in  the 

curriculum 39 

(o)  The  lack  of  industrial  purpose 39 

(6)  The  disciplinary  aim 40 

2.  The  need  of  a  subject  called  "Industry"    ...  41 

3.  The  significance  of  the  new  subject 42 

4.  Conduct  of  the  subject 43 

5.  Relation  to  manual  action 44 

6.  Relation  to  other  subjects 45 

7.  Relation  to  the  theory  of  culture 46 

8.  Relation  to  primitive  industry 47 

V.   THE  NECESSARY  RECONSTRUCTION  OF 
SCHOOL   METHOD 

1.  Instruction 51 

2.  Excursions 53 

3.  Manual  action 56 

4.  Oral  expression 57 

5.  Study 57 

6.  Written  expression 58 

7.  Suggestions  from  primitive  industry 59 

8.  The  new  features  in  school  method 60 


RIVERSIDE  EDUCATIONAL 
MONOGRAPHS 

GENERAL  EDUCATIONAL  THEORY 

DKWlT'a  MORAL  PRINCIPLES  IN  EDUCATIOH SS 

Eliot's  EDUCATION  FOR  EFFICIENCY SB 

Eliot's  TENDENCY  TO  THE  CONCRETE  AHB  PRACTIOAL  tN  MOD- 
ERN EDnCATION SB 

Emebsom's  EDUCATION SB 

FrsKB's  THE  MEANINO  OF  INFANCY SB 

Utde's  THE  TEACHER'S  PHILOSOPHY SB 

Falmik's  THE  IDEAL  TEACHER SB 

Fkosser'a  the  TEACHER  AMD  OLD  AOB 60 

Tkbmah's  the  TEACHER'S  HEALTH 60 

TuoBSDHE's  INDIVmUALITY SB 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  SCHOOLS 

BiTTS's  NEW  IDEALS  IN  RURAL  SCHOOLS 60 

Bloomfield's  VOCATIONAL  GUIDANCE  OF  YOUTH 60 

Cabot's  VOLUNTEER  HELP  TO  THE  SCHOOLS 60 

CoLK'H  INDUSTRIAL  EDUCATIOH  IN   ELEMENTARY   SCHOOLS SB 

CuBBIBLET's  CHANOIHQ   CONCEPTIONS  OF  EDUCATION SB 

CuBBKBLKT-s  THE  IMPROVEMENT  OF  RURAL  SCHOOLS Zi 

Lewis's  DEMOCRACY'S  HIGH  SCHOOL.    Jn  I'reti. 

PebrVs  status  of  THE  TEACHER SB 

SXEDDEN'»  THE  PROBLEM  OF  VOCATIONAL  EDUCATIOH SB 

TBOWBRinOE's  THE  HOME  SCHOOL 60 

WEEKg's  THE  PEOPLE'S  SCHOOL 60 

METHODS  OF  TEACHING 

Bailet'3  ART  EDUCATION 60 

Bktts's  THE  RECITATION 60 

Campaonao's  THE  TEACHING  OF  COMPOSITION SB 

CoOLET's  LANGUAGE  TEACHING  IN  THE  GRADES SB 

Dewey's  INTEREST  AND  EFFORT  IN  EDUCATION 60 

Eariiart's  teaching  CHILDREN  TO  STUDY 60 

Evans's  TEACHING  OF  HIGH  SCHOOL  MATHEMATICS SB 

Halibcbtow  and  Smith's  TEACHING  POETRY  IN  THE  GRADES 60 

Habtwell's  the  TEACHING  OF  HISTORY SB 

KiLPATRiCK's  THE  MONTESSORI  SYSTEM  EXAMINED 80 

Palmer's  ETHICAL  AND  MORAL  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  SCHOOLS..     SB 

Palmer's  SELF-CULTIVATION  IN  ENGLISH SB 

Bi'ZZALLo'8  THE  TEACHING  OF  PRIMARY  ARITHMETIC 60 

SUZZALLO'S  THE  TEACHING  OP  SPELLINO 60 

1516 


University  of  California  Library 
Los  Angeles 

This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


bC- 


Ph. 

310/82519188 


^fHf 


I 


LB1594 

.C67 

II  III 

III 

yr 

:    1 

n    M 

II  HI  1 

i;  ii 

1  il 

;'i 

llil 

liJI    1 

ij 

L  009  509  071    8 

• -o  ANGtLto 
STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 


